学习与涌流:一个教育的新模式
涌流是某项活动促使人们把自身潜能发挥到极致的状态,因此,随着人们技能的提高,需要更大的挑战才能激发人们的涌流状态。如果任务过于简单,就会使人乏味;如果任务过于复杂,就会使人焦虑而无法激发涌流。有人认为,涌流的体验可以激发技艺或技能进入炉火纯青的境界,也就是说,无论是拉小提琴、跳舞还是基因拼接,精益求精的精神至少是进入涌流状态的部分催化剂。齐克森米哈里对200名从艺术学校毕业18年的艺术家进行了研究,发现那些在学生时代享受过绘画本身纯粹乐趣的人成了严肃的画家,而那些在艺术学校为名利所驱使的人,在毕业之后大多数离开了艺术领域。
齐克森米哈里的结论是:“画家一定要想着画画,画画高于一切。如果画家对着画布开始考虑他这幅画能卖多少钱,或者评论界会如何评论,他就无法独辟蹊径。创造性的成就取决于一心一意的投入。”[31]
涌流是精通一门技艺、职业或艺术的前提,同时也是学习的前提。除了成就测验所衡量的智力潜能之外,进入涌流状态的学生学习效果会更好。在芝加哥一所特殊的科技高中,挑选数学测验成绩排名在前5%的学生,并由数学老师评估为高成就者或低成就者。研究者对学生如何利用时间进行监测,每位学生携带一个传呼机,在白天传呼机会随机提醒他们记录当前从事的活动以及情绪状态。不出所料,低成就者每周在家学习的时间只有15个小时,比高成就者的27个小时要少得多。低成就者不学习的时候把大部分时间都花在社交上,与朋友或家人出去玩耍。
研究者通过分析学生的情绪状况,得出了一个显著的发现。高成就者和低成就者每周都会把大量时间花在乏味的活动上,比如看电视,这些活动对他们的能力没有造成任何影响。当然大部分青少年都是如此。他们之间主要的差异在于学习的体验。对于高成就者,在40%的学习时间里,他们感受到了愉快、专注的涌流状态。但对于低成就者,他们只在16%的学习时间里出现涌流状态,而且他们在行为要求超出能力水平的时候往往产生焦虑情绪。低成就者从社交活动而不是学习当中获得乐趣和涌流的感受。总之,能够达到并超过自身学业潜力水平的学生,往往更容易被学习吸引,原因在于学习会令他们进入涌流状态。悲哀的是,低成就者无法磨炼可以让自己进入涌流状态的技能,这不仅令他们丧失学习兴趣,还有可能限制他们完成智力任务的水平——也许他们将来会发现这些智力任务很有趣。[32]
提出多元智能理论的哈佛大学心理学家霍华德·加德纳认为,涌流及其积极的心理状态是教导儿童最健康的途径之一。也就是说,不用威胁或奖赏,而是从内在激发儿童的积极性。加德纳提出:“我们应该利用孩子们积极的状态,把他们吸引到可以发展自身竞争力的领域进行学习。
涌流是一种内在的状态,它意味着孩子从事的是恰当的活动。你必须找到感兴趣的东西,并持之以恒。孩子如果对学校感到厌烦,就会打架闹事;如果对功课感到焦虑,就会害怕挑战。如果你有感兴趣的活动,并从这项活动中获得乐趣,你的学习效果就会很好。”
很多学校把加德纳多元智能模型付诸实践,其制定的教育策略着眼于辨别儿童的专长,使其发挥长处、改正缺点。比如,相对于其他不擅长的领域,有音乐或运动天赋的儿童在这些领域更容易进入涌流状态。了解儿童的特点可以帮助教师调整教育方式,因材施教,提供从补习班到强化班等各种层次的课程,使儿童获得最优化的挑战。通过这种方式,学习会变得更有趣,不再令人厌烦或恐惧。加德纳说,“希望在于,如果孩子们从学习中获得涌流的感觉,他们就会勇于尝试新领域的挑战”,他还补充说经验可以证明这一点。
更有普遍意义的是,涌流模型揭示了掌握任何技能或知识最理想的状态是顺其自然,把孩子吸引到他感兴趣的领域,从本质上说,也就是孩子热爱的领域。最初的激情可能孕育出高水平的造诣,孩子意识到有所追求——无论是在跳舞、数学还是音乐领域——是涌流快感的源泉。由于保持涌流状态要求个体不断突破自身能力界限,因此涌流成为精益求精的主要推动力,也是孩子的快乐源泉。当然,与大多数人在学校接受的教育模式相比,这是一种更加积极的学习和教育模式。谁不会在回忆校园生活的时候,多多少少想起那些枯燥与焦虑相互交织的时光呢?对于以教育为出发点的情绪控制,通过学习获得涌流状态是一种更加人性化、更加自然,而且很有可能更高效的方式。
这从更普遍的意义说明了把情绪导向有利的结果是一种主导性向。不管是控制冲动还是延迟满足,对自身情绪进行调节,使其有助于思考而不是妨碍思考,自我激励,勇于尝试,百折不挠,或者寻找办法进入涌流状态,使表现更为出色,这一切都揭示了情绪对于有效活动的导向性作用。
- The terror of the exam: Daniel Goleman ,Vital Lies, Simple Truths: The Psychology of Self-Deception (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985).
- Working memory: Alan Baddeley, Working Memory (Oxford: ClarendonPress, 1986).
- Prefrontal cortex and working memory: Patricia Goldman-Rakic, “Cellular and Circuit Basis ofWorking Memory in Prefrontal Cortex of Nonhuman Primates,” Progress in Brain Research , 85, 1990;Daniel Weinberger, “A Connectionist Approach to the Prefrontal Cortex,” Journal of Neuropsychiatry5(1993).
- Motivation and elite performance: Anders Ericsson, “Expert Performance: Its Structure andAcquisition,” American Psychologist (Aug. 1994).
- Asian IQ advantage: Herrnstein and Murray, The Bell Curve.
- IQ and occupation of Asian-Americans: James Flynn, Asian-American Achievement Beyond IQ(New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1991).
- The study of delay of gratification in four-year-olds was reported in Yuichi Shoda, Walter Mischel,and Philip K. Peake, “Predicting Adolescent Cognitive and Self-regulatory Competencies FromPreschool Delay of Gratification,” Developmental Psychology ,26, 6 (1990), pp. 978-86.
- SAT scores of impulsive and self-controlled children: The analysis of SATdata was done by PhilPeake, a psychologist at Smith College.
- IQ vs. delay as predictors of SAT scores: personal communication fromPhil Peake, psychologist atSmith College, who analyzed the SAT data in WalterMischel’s study of delay of gratification.
- Impulsivity and delinquency: See the discussion in: Jack Block, “On theRelation Between IQ,Impulsivity, and Delinquency,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 104 (1995).
- The worried mother: Timothy A. Brown et al., “Generalized AnxietyDisorder,” in David H.Barlow, ed. ,Clinical Handbook of Psychological Disorders (New York: Guilford Press, 1993).
- Air traffic controllers and anxiety: W. E. Collins et al., “Relationships of Anxiety Scores toAcademy and Field Training Performance of Air Traffic Control Specialists,” FAA Office of AviationMedicine Reports (May 1989).
- Anxiety and academic performance: Bettina Seipp, “Anxiety and AcademicPerformance: A Meta-analysis,” Anxiety Research 4, 1 (1991).
- Worriers: Richard Metzger et al., “Worry Changes Decision-making: TheEffects of NegativeThoughts on Cognitive Processing,”J ournal of Clinical Psychology (Jan. 1990).
- Ralph Haber and Richard Alpert, “Test Anxiety,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 13(1958).
- Anxious students: Theodore Chapin, “The Relationship of Trait Anxietyand AcademicPerformance to Achievement Anxiety,” Journal of College Student Development (May 1989).
- Negative thoughts and test scores: John Hunsley, “Internal Dialogue DuringAcademicExaminations,” Cognitive Therapy and Research (Dec. 1987).
- The internists given a gift of candy: Alice Isen et al., “The Influence of Positive Affect on ClinicalProblem Solving,” Medical Decision Making (July-Sept. 1991).
- Hope and a bad grade: C. R. Snyder et al., “The Will and the Ways:Development and Validationof an Individual-Differences Measure of Hope,”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60, 4(1991), p. 579.
- I interviewed C. R. Snyder in The New York Times (Dec. 24, 1991).
- Optimistic swimmers: Martin Seligman, Learned Optimism (New York:Knopf, 1991).
- A realistic vs. naive optimism: see, for example, Carol Whalen et al.,“Optimism in Children’sJudgments of Health and Environmental Risks,” Health Psychology 13 (1994).
- I interviewed Martin Seligman about optimism in The New York Times (Feb.3,1987).
- I interviewed Albert Bandura about self-efficacy in The New York Times (Mzy8,1988).
- Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, “Play and Intrinsic Rewards,” Journal of Humanistic Psychology 15, 3(1975).
- Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience , 1sted. (New York:Harper and Row, 1990).
- “Like a waterfall”: Newsweek (Feb. 28, 1994).
- I interviewed Dr. Csikszentmihalyi in The New York Times (Mar. 4, 1986).
- The brain in flow: Jean Hamilton et al., “Intrinsic Enjoyment and Boredom Coping Scales:Validation With Personality, Evoked Potential and Attention Measures,” Personality and IndividualDifferences 5, 2 (1984).
- Cortical activation and fatigue: Ernest Hartmann, The Functions of Sleep (New Haven: YaleUniversity Press, 1973).
- I interviewed Dr. Csikszentmihalyi in The New York Times (MM. 22, 1992).
- The study of flow and math students: Jeanne Nakamura, “OptimalExperience and the Uses ofTalent,” in Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and IsabellaCsikszentmihalyi, Optimal Experience: PsychologicalStudies of Flow in Consciousness (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
- 性向意为潜在的能力倾向。——译者注






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