疫苗竞赛：人类对抗疾病的代价

在以下注释中，部分依据《信息自由法》获得的文件在引用时简称为：《事实记录》《海弗利克对〈施赖弗报告〉的反驳》《赖斯伯格备忘录》《施赖弗报告》《施赖弗对海弗利克反驳声明的反驳》。这些文件的完整引用信息见参考文献。
格言Helen Keller,The Open Door(Garden City,New York:Doubleday & Company,Inc.,1957),31.
[1] 引自William A.Clark and Dorothy H.Geary,“The Story of the American Type Culture Collection:Its History and Development(1899—1973),”Advances in Applied Microbiology 17(1974):295。
[2] Pathological Laboratory Autopsy Report,Philadelphia General Hospital,autopsy no.74681,February 21,1966,Post Mortem Records,vol.465(January 18—April 8,1966),Collection 80-101.24,City Archives,City of Philadelphia Department of Records.
[3] Leonard B.Seeff et al.,“A Serologic Follow-up of the 1942 Epidemic of Post-vaccination Hepatitis in the United States Army,”New England Journal of Medicine 316(1987):965—70.
[4] Neal Nathanson and Alexander Langmuir,“The Cutter Incident:Poliomyelitis Following Formaldehyde-Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccination in the United States During the Spring of 1955 II:The Relationship of Poliomyelitis to Cutter Vaccine,”American Journal of Hygiene 78(1963):39;Paul A.Offit,“The Cutter Incident,50 Years Later,”New England Journal of Medicine 352(2005):1411.
[5] David M.Oshinsky,Polio:An American Story(New York:Oxford University Press,Inc.,2005),238.
[6] 对WI—38细胞研发的描述，来自对伦纳德·海弗利克的个人采访，这些采访列在参考文献中，包括2013年7月1日的一次电话访谈。
[7] 2011年10月至2015年的美国新兵接种人数（826371）由国防部副部长办公室的国防新闻办公室提供。关于1971至1999年的接种人数（约为850万），见CNA Analysis and Solutions,Population Representation in the Military Services:Fiscal Year 2014 Summary Report,Appendix D,Table D—4(Washington,DC:Office of the Undersecretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness,2014),https://www.cna.org/pop-rep/2014/ appendixd/d_04.html；
1960年代中、后期，数十万美国新兵还接种了使用WI—38细胞制备的、处于测试阶段的腺病毒疫苗，见“Conference on Cell Cultures for Virus Vaccine Production Nov.6—81967,National Institutes of Health,Bethesda,Maryland,”NCI Monographs,no.29(1968),499。
[8] Nicholas Wade,“Hayflick's Tragedy:The Rise and Fall of a Human Cell Line,”Science 194,no.4235(1976):125.
[9]臭名昭着的塔斯基吉梅毒实验是个明显的例外，它始于1932年。在这项实验中，美国政府的研究人员故意不为399位贫穷、不识字的非洲裔美国人治疗梅毒。
[10] 对该年代的独到分析，见David J.Rothman,Strangers at the Bedside:A History of How Law and Bioethics Transformed Medical Decision Making(New York:Aldine de Gruyter,1991,2003),30—50。
[11] 例如，见Marcia Angell,“Medical Research:The Dangers to the Human Subjects,”New York Review of Books 62,no.18(November 19,2015):50。
[12] Henry K.Beecher,“Ethics and Clinical Research,”New England Journal of Medicine 274,no.24(1966):1354—60.
[13] William H.Stewart,“Surgeon General's Directives on Human Experimentation,”PPO#129(Bethesda,MD:US Public Health Service,revised July 1,1966),https://history.nih.gov/research/downloads/Surgeongeneraldirective1966.pdf.
[14] 例如，见Angell,“Medical Research,”48—51；以及 Marcia Angell,“Medical Research on Humans:Making It Ethical,”New York Review of Books 62,no.19(December 3,2015):30—32。
[15] World Health Organization,“Situation Report:Zika Virus Microcephaly Guillain-Barré Syndrome,July 7,2016,”7.
[16] Nicole Krauss,The History of Love(New York:W.W.Norton,2006),11.
[17] Maxwell Whiteman,“Philadelphia's Jewish Neighborhoods,”in The Peoples of Philadelphia:A History of Ethnic Groups and Lower-Class Life,1790—1940,Allen F.Davis and Mark H.Haller,eds.(Philadelphia:Temple University Press,1973),250;Richard A.Varbero,“Philadelphia's South Italians in the 1920s,”in Peoples of Philadelphia,Davis and Haller,eds.,260—61.
[18] “13th US Federal Census(1910) ED 71,Sh.3B,line 4:Res.411 Lombard St.,Phila.PA,”引自http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~jhayflick/ps08/ps08_281.htm； Mark H.Haller,“Recurring Themes,”in Peoples of Philadelphia,Davis and Haller,eds.,283—84。
[19] John F.Sutherland,“Housing the Poor,”in Peoples of Philadelphia,Davis and Haller,eds.,184—85.
[20] Dennis J.Clark,“The Philadelphia Irish:Persistent Presence,”in Peoples of Philadelphia,Davis and Haller,eds.;Whiteman “Jewish Neighborhoods,”in ibid.242.
[21] John M.Barry,The Great Influenza:The Story of the Deadliest Pandemic in History(New York:Viking Penguin,2004),326.
[22] Roger D.Simon,“Great Depression,”The Encyclopedia of Greater Philadelphia,http://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/archive/great-depression/（重印和改编自 Roger D.Simon,“Philadelphia During the Great Depression,1929—1941,”Historical Society of Pennsylvania,“Closed for Business:The Story of Bankers Trust During the Great Depression” http://www.hsp.org/bankers-trust）.
[23] Philadelphia County Relief Board,Office Manual of the Philadelphia County Relief Board,August 1934,section V,page 1,Temple University Urban Archive,Jewish Family Service,series 4,box 7,volume 16.
[24] Simon,“Great Depression.”
[25] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2014年3月23日与作者的电话访谈。
[26] Vincent J.Cristofalo,“Profile in Gerontology:Leonard Hayflick,PhD,”Contemporary Gerontology 9,no.3(2003):86.
[27] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2012年10月3日与作者的访谈。
[28] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2014年3月31日与作者的电话访谈。
[29] 出处同上。
[30] D.Ivanovsky,1892.“Concerning the Mosaic Disease of the Tobacco Plant,”St.Petsb. Acad.Imp.Sci.Bul. 35(1892):67—70.引自Alice Lustig and Arnold J.Levine,“One Hundred Years of Virology,”Journal of Virology 66,no.8(August 1992):4629—31。
[31] M.W.Beijerinck,“Concerning a Contagium Vivum Fluidum as a Cause of the Spot-Disease of Tobacco Leaves,”Verh.Akad.Wet.Amsterdam 2,no.6(1898):3—21.Lustig and Levine,“One Hundred Years of Virology”第三条参考书目。
[32] F.Loeffler and P.Frosch,Zentralbl.Bakteriol.Parasitenkd.Infektionskr.Hyg.Abt.1 Orig.28(1898):371.Lustig and Levine,“One Hundred Years of Virology”第十三条参考书目。
[33] Edward Rybicki,A Short History of the Discovery of Viruses(Buglet Press e-book,2015),6.可在线购买本书，购买地址为：https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/short-history-discovery-viruses/id1001627125?mt=13。本书第一部分可免费在线获取，地址为：https://rybicki.wordpress.com/2012/02/06/a-short-history-of-the-discovery-of-viruses-part-1/ 。第二部分地址为：https://rybicki.wordpress.com/2012/02/07/a-short-history-of-the-discovery-of-viruses-part-2/ 。
[34] F.Loeffler and P.Frosch,“Summarischer Bericht über die Ergebnisse der Untersuchungen der Kommission zur Erforschung der Maulund Klauenseuche bei dem Institut für Infektionskrankheiten in Berlin,”Centralblatt für Bakteriologie,Parasitenkunde und Infektionskrankheiten,Abt.I 22(1897):257—59.如下文献也描述了勒夫勒和弗罗施的成就：Rudolf Rott and Stuart Siddell,“One Hundred Years of Animal Virology,”Journal of General Virology 79(1998):2871—72,http://jgv.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/jgv/10.1099/0022-1317-79-11-2871?crawler=true&mimetype=application/pdf] 。
[35] Thomas M.Rivers,“Filterable Viruses:A Critical Review,”Journal of Bacteriology xiv,no.4(1927):228.
[36] Thomas M.Rivers,ed.,Filterable Viruses(Baltimore:Williams and Wilkins,1928),1—418.
[37] Albert B.Sabin and Peter K.Olitsky,“Cultivation of Poliomyelitis Virus in Vitro in Human Embryonic Nervous Tissue,”Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 34(1936):357—59.
[38] Rachel Benson Gold,“Lessons from Before Roe:Will Past Be Prologue?”Guttmacher Report on Public Policy 6(2003):8—11,www.guttmacher.org/about/gpr/2003/03/lessons-roe-will-past-be-prologue;Rosemary Nossif,Before Roe:Abortion Policy in the States(Philadelphia:Temple University Press,2001),33—35.
[39] Carole R.McCann,“Abortion,”in The Oxford Companion to United States History,ed.Paul S.Boyer(New York:Oxford University Press,2001),3;Henry J.Sangmeister,“A Survey of Abortion Deaths in Philadelphia from 1931 to 1940 Inclusive,”American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 46(1943):757—58.
[40] John F.Enders,Thomas H.Weller,and Frederick C.Robbins,“Cultivation of the Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus in Cultures of Various Human Embryonic Tissues,”Science 109(1949):85—87.
[41] Saul Benison,Tom Rivers:Reflections on a Life in Medicine and Science:An Oral History Memoir Prepared by Saul Benison(Cambridge,MA,and London:MIT Press,1967),446.
[42] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2012年10月3日与作者的访谈。
[43] Leonard Hayflick,“Early Days at Merck,”Web of Stories,July,2011,www.webofstories.com/play/leonard.hayflick/13.
[44] 露丝·海弗利克，2014年9月29日与作者的电话访谈。
[45] Wistar Institute,“Our History,”www.wistar.org/the-institute/our-history(2016年6月7日访问7,2016).
[46] Leonard Warren,“A History of the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology”(unpublished manuscript,March 25,2014),25,40,60;Erik Larson,The Devil in the White City:Murder,Magic,and Madness at the Fair That Changed America(New York:Random House,2003).
[47] Warren,“A History of the Wistar Institute”2,47,61,78,79;Paul Offit,Vaccinated:One Man’s Quest to Defeat the World’s Deadliest Diseases(New York:HarperCollins,2007),79—80.
[48] Warren,“History of the Wistar Institute,”106—12.
[49] 出处同上，111。
[50] 出处同上，101。
[51] 伦纳德·海弗利克，访谈。
[52] Leonard Hayflick,“The Growth of Human and Poultry Pleuropneumonia-like Organisms in Tissue Cultures and in Ovo and the Characterization of an Infectious Agent Causing Tendovaginitis with Arthritis in Chickens”(PhD diss.,University of Pennsylvania,1956).
[53] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2013年3月3日与作者的访谈。
[54] 莫里斯·希勒曼，2004年11月30日与保罗·奥菲特的访谈。音频文件由保罗·奥菲特提供。
[55] 芭芭拉·科恩，2014年11月20日与作者的访谈。
[56] John Rowan Wilson,Margin of Safety(Garden City,NY:Doubleday,1963),140.
[57] 厄休拉·罗斯，2001年庆祝希拉里·科普罗夫斯基85岁生日的祝词。由苏·琼斯提供。
[58] 在2001年为庆祝希拉里·科普罗夫斯基85岁生日而编撰的回忆文集中，比利时病毒学家利斯·蒂里在其撰写的祝词中讲述了这个故事。蒂里的回忆文章由科普罗夫斯基的前助理苏·琼斯提供。
[59] 威斯塔研究所董事会1967年2月24日会议纪要，page 4,UPT 50 R252,box 68,file folder 12(Wistar Institute 1966—67),Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers,UniversityArchives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania；Trustee Minutes,vol.26,page 313,collection no.UPA 1.1,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania；维托里奥·德芬迪，2014年3月18日与作者的访谈。
[60] 彼得·多尔蒂，2015年1月20日与作者的电话访谈。
[61] Michael Katz,“A Devotion to ‘Real Science,’”in “Symposium in Honor of Hilary Koprowski's Achievements,”Journal of Infectious Diseases 212,Supplement 1(2015):S6.
[62] Stacey Burling,“Hilary Koprowski,Polio Vaccine Pioneer,Dead at 96,”Philadelphia Inquirer,April 14,2013,http://articles.philly.com/2013-04-15/news/38559037_1_polio-vaccine-hilary-koprowski-rabies-vaccine.
[63] Roger Vaughan,Listen to the Music:The Life of Hilary Koprowski(New York:Springer-Verlag,2000),5.
[64] Bob Gallo,“Lessons from a World Trip,”in “Symposium in Honor of Hilary Koprowski's Achievements,”S6.
[65] Vaughan,Listen to the Music,111.
[66] I.S.拉夫丁1960年1月27日致乔纳森·罗兹的信，UPT 50 R252,box 65,file folder 56(Wistar Institute,1959—1961),Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania。
[67] 威斯塔研究所董事会1960年9月21日会议纪要草稿，以及I.S.拉夫丁在1960年12月15日的备忘录，两份文献都位于：UPC 1.4 ,box 6,file folder “Wistar Institute Board of Managers,”Vice President for Medical Affairs Correspondence and Records,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania；I.S.拉夫丁1960年7月1日致弗朗西斯·博耶的信，UPT 50 R252,box 65,file folder 56(Wistar Institute,1959—1961),Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers,University Archivesand Records Center,University of Pennsylvania；负责威斯塔研究所的委员会在1959年11月17日致盖洛德·P.哈恩韦尔校长的信，p.3,UPA4,box 114,file folder 24(Goddard Report:Committee on the Wistar Institute 1955—1960),Office of the President,Gaylord Probasco Harnwell Administration,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania；威斯塔研究所执行委员会1959年11月18日会议暂定纪要，pp.2—3,UPA4,box 114,file folder 17(Wistar Institute IV:1955—1960),Office of the President,Gaylord Probasco Harnwell Administration,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania；小约瑟夫·斯托克斯、希拉里·科普罗夫斯基、乔纳森·罗兹、阿尔伯特·林顿及I.S.拉夫丁1960年1月20日至2月22日的通信，call no.B.St65p,file folder “Koprowski,Hilary #2,”Joseph Stokes Papers Series I,American Philosophical Society Archives。
[68] “Resolution by the Senior Members of the Scientific Staff of the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology,to Be Forwarded to the President and Board of Managers,”December 30,1959,UPA4,box 114,file folder 17(Wistar Institute IV:1955—1960),Office of the President,Gaylord Probasco Harnwell Administration,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania.
[69] 本部分大量传记信息详见Vaughan,Listen to the Music,17—40；本部分还参考了希拉里·科普罗夫斯基妻子的精彩回忆录：Irena Koprowska,A Woman Wanders Through Life and Science(Albany:State University of New York Press,1997),38—122；克里斯托弗·科普罗夫斯基，2013年10月15日写给作者的电子邮件。
[70] Vaughan,Listen to the Music,42,67.
[71] 出处同上，44。
[72] David M.Oshinsky,Polio:An American Story(New York:Oxford University Press,2005),138—42.
[73] Vaughan,Listen to the Music,1—2.
[74] Hilary Koprowski,Thomas W.Norton,and Walsh McDermott,“Isolation of Poliomyelitis Virus from Human Serum by Direct Inoculation into a Laboratory Mouse,”Public Health Reports 62,no.41(1947):1467—76.
[75] Hilary Koprowski,George A.Jervis,and Thomas W.Norton,“Immune Responses in Human Volunteers upon Oral Administration of a Rodent-Adapted Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus,”American Journal of Hygiene 55(1952):109.
[76] Oshinsky,Polio,135.
[77] Hilary Koprowski,“A Condensed Version of an Unpublished Lecture,‘Frontiers of Virology:Development of Vaccines Against Polio Virus,’ at the Medical School of the Hershey Medical Center,June 18,1980,”in Koprowska,A Woman Wanders,298.
[78] James W.Trent Jr.,Inventing the Feeble Mind:A History of Mental Retardation in the United States(Berkeley,Los Angeles,and London:University of California Press,1994),Kindle e-book,location 3312 of 5061.
[79] Records of the Office of Scientific Research and Development,Committee on Medical Research,Contractor Records,C 450,R L2,Bimonthly Progress Report,PI Alf S.Alving(University of Chicago),August 1,1944,cited in David J.Rothman,Strangers at the Bedside:A History of How Law and Bioethics Transformed Medical Decision Making(New York:Aldine de Gruyter,1991,2003),36.
[80] 出处同上，38；Werner Henle et al.,“Experiments on Vaccination of Human Beings Against Epidemic Influenza,”Journal of Immunology 53(1946):75—93。
[81] Thomas Francis Jr.et al.,“Protective Effect of Vaccination Against Induced Influenza A,”Journal of Clinical Investigation 24,no.4(1945):536—46;Jonas E.Salk et al.,“Protective Effect of Vaccination Against Induced Influenza B,”Journal of Clinical Investigation 24,no.4(1945):547—53.
[82] Koprowski,“Condensed Version of an Unpublished Lecture,”298.
[83] Koprowski,Jervis,and Norton,“Immune Responses in Human Volunteers,”109.
[84] Oshinsky,Polio,136.
[85] Koprowski,“Condensed Version of an Unpublished Lecture,”299.
[86] Vaughan,Listen to the Music,15—16.
[87] Koprowski,Jervis and Norton,“Immune Responses in Human Volunteers,”125.
[88] Norman Topping(with Gordon Cohn),Recollections(Los Angeles:University of California Press,1990),139—41.
[89] Leonard Warren,“A History of the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology”(unpublished manuscript,March 25,2014),121—22.
[90] Vaughan,Listen to the Music,77—78;Warren,“History of the Wistar Institute,”122.
[91] 威斯塔董事会主席威廉·迪巴里1957年1月24日致希拉里·科普罗夫斯基的信，UPA4(Office of the President Records),box 114,folder 19(Wistar Institute:Administrative Appointments,1955—1960),University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania.
[92] Vaughan,Listen to the Music,77。
[93] 出处同上，81。
[94] 出处同上，63—64。
[95] 出处同上，79。
[96] 1951年，科学家在一位叫海瑞塔·拉克斯的31岁非洲裔美国妇女不知情的情况下，从她的宫颈肿瘤中获得了这些细胞。丽贝卡·斯克鲁特在2010年出版《永生的海拉》一书，让这些细胞闻名于世。
[97] Warren,“History of the Wistar Institute,”127.
[98] Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology,Biennial Report,1958-1959,9-11,Wistar Institute Archives,Philadelphia,PA.
[99] 出处同上，24。
[100] Elsa M.Zitcer,Jørgen Fogh,and Thelma H.Dunnebacke,“Human Amnion Cells for LargeScale Production of Poliovirus,”Science 122,no.3157(1955):30;Jørgen Fogh and R.O.Lund,“Continuous Cultivation of Epithelial Cell Strain(FL) from Human Amniotic Membrane,”Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 94,no.3(1957):532—37;Thelma H.Dunnebacke and Elsa M.Zitcer,“Transformation of Cells from the Normal Human Amnion into Established Strains,”Cancer Research 17(1957):1047—53.
[101] Leonard Hayflick,“The Establishment of a Line(WISH) of Human Amnion Cells in Continuous Cultivation,”Experimental Cell Research 23,no.1(1961):14—20.
[102] Stanley M.Gartler,National Cancer Institute Monograph 26,no.167(1967);Stanley M.Gartler,“Apparent HeLa Cell Contamination of Human Heteroploid Cell Lines,”Nature 217(1968):750—51.
[103] Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology,Biennial Report,1958—1959,24；伦纳德·海弗利克，2014年6月9日与作者的电话访谈。
[104] Robert E.Hall,“Abortion in American Hospitals,”American Journal of Public Health 57,no.11(1967):1933.
[105] Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology,Biennial Report:1958—1959,25,Wistar Institute Archives,Philadelphia,PA.
[106] D.A.Rigoni-Stern,“Fatti Statistici Relativi alle Malattie Cancerose Che Servirono di Base Alle Poche Cose Dette dal Dott.,”G Servire Progr Path Tera 2(1842):507—17； Daniel DiMaio,“Nuns,Warts,Viruses and Cancer,”Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 88,no.2(2015):127.
[107] V.Ellerman and O.Bang,“Experimentelle Leukämie bei Hühnern,”Zentralbl Bakteriol Parasitenkd Infectionskr Hyg Abt I 46(1908):595—609.
对埃勒曼和邦这篇论文的英语描述，见Robin A.Weiss and Peter K.Vogt,“One Hundred Years of Rous Sarcoma Virus,”Journal of Experimental Medicine 208,no.12(2011):2352,www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3256973/#bib12。
[108] Peyton Rous,“A Sarcoma of the Fowl Transmissible by an Agent Separable from the Tumor Cells,”Journal of Experimental Medicine 13,no.4(1911):397—411,www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2124874/pdf/397.pdf.
[109] George Klein,“The Strange Road to the Tumor-Specific Transplantation Antigens,”Cancer Immunity 1(2001):6,http://cancerimmunolres.aacrjournals.org/content/canimmarch/1/1/6.full.
[110] “Medicine:Cornering the Killer,”Time,July 27,1959,http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,864777,00.html.
[111] Hilary Koprowski,“The Viral Concept of the Etiology of Cancer,”undated article from unidentified journal,c.1960,p.57,UPT 50 R252,box 22,file folder 24,“Professional Correspondence,Kop-Kos,”Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania;Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology,Biennial Report:1958—1959,25,Wistar Institute Archives,Philadelphia,PA.
[112] 在华盛顿大学遗传学家斯坦利·加特勒后来发现的多个受到海拉癌细胞污染的细胞系中，就有这几十个细胞系中的一部分；其他细胞系也有可能被海拉细胞污染过。
[113] Joe Hin Tjio and Albert Levan,“The Chromosome Number of Man,”Hereditas 42(1956):1—6,http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1601-5223.1956.tb03010.x/epdf.
[114] T.C.Tsu,Charles S.Pomerat,and Paul S.Moorhead,“Mammalian Chromosomes in Vitro VIII:Heteroploid Transformation in the Human Cell Strain Mayes,”Journal of the National Cancer Institute 19(1957):867—
73;R.S.Chang,“Continuous Subcultivation of Epithelial-like Cells from Normal Human Tissues,”Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 87,no.2(1954):440—43;J.Leighton et al.,“Transformation of Normal Human Fibroblasts into Histologically Malignant Tissue in Vitro,”Science 123,no.3195(1956):502—3;L.Hayflick and P.S.Moorhead,“Cell Lines from Non-neoplastic Tissue,”in P.L.Altman and D.S.Dittmer,eds.,Growth(Bethesda,MD:Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology and Medicine,1962),156—60.
[115] D.von Hansemann,“Ueber asymmetrische Zellteilung in Epithelkrebsen und deren biologische Bedeutung,”Virchows Arch Path Anat Physiol Klin Med 119(1890):299—326.
[116] Henry Harris,trans.and ann.,“‘Concerning the Origin of Malignant Tumours’ by Theodor Boveri,”Journal of Cell Science 121(2008):S1—S84.此为博韦里原文的译文。
[117] Peter C.Nowell and David A.Hungerford,“A Minute Chromosome in Human Chronic Granulocytic Leukemia,”Science 132(1960):1497.
[118] J.H.Tjio and Theodore T.Puck,“Genetics of Somatic Mammalian Cells II:Chromosomal Constitution of Cells in Tissue Culture,”Journal of Experimental Medicine 108(1958):261.
[119] Rachel Benson Gold,“Lessons from Before Roe:Will Past Be Prologue?”Guttmacher Report on Public Policy 6,no.1(2003):9.
[120] Purdon’s Pennsylvania Statutes and Consolidated Statutes,Title 18,Crimes and Offenses,Chapter 2:The Penal Code of 1939,Article VII:Offenses Against the Person,Section 718:Abortion.
[121] 出处同上，Section 719:Abortion Causing Death。
[122] Commonwealth v.Zimmerman,214 Pa.Super.61,251 A.2d 819(1969);Commonwealth v.King,no.37,March Term 1968,Pa.Court of Common Pleas(Allegheny County,Criminal Division);Janet M.LaRue,“Is Kate Michelman Telling the Truth About Her Own Abortion Story,”Human Events,January 24,2006,http://humanevents.com/2006/01/24/is-kate-michelman-telling-the-truth-about-her-own-abortion-story/.
[123] Leslie J.Reagan,When Abortion Was a Crime:Women,Medicine and Law in the United States,1867—1973(Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press,1997):13,61—70.
[124] 出处同上，15,132,135。
[125] Henry J.Sangmeister,“A Survey of Abortion Deaths in Philadelphia from 1931 to 1940 Inclusive,”American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 46(1943):756—57.
[126] Reagan,When Abortion Was a Crime,15.
[127] R.K.登沃斯（Drinker,Biddle & Reath律师事务所）1962年9月28日致I.S.拉夫丁的信，page 1,series UPC 1.4,box 14,file folder “Dept.of Ob/Gyn,”University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania。
[128] 匿名人士，2014年6月30日与作者的电话访谈。
[129] Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology,“Rules Governing Requests for Therapeutic Abortion and/or Sterilization,”January 21,1963,series UPC 1.4,box 14,file folder “Dept.of Ob/Gyn,”University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania.
[130] Reagan,When Abortion Was a Crime,204—7.
[131] Hall,“Abortion in American Hospitals,”1933.
[132] 贝琪·梅雷迪丝，2014年7月16日与作者的电话访谈。
[133] I.S.拉夫丁与德怀特·艾森豪威尔的合影，UPT 50 R252,box 182,file folder 13,Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania。
[134] 约翰·M.米切尔1952年10月29日致I.S.拉夫丁的信，series UPC 1.4,box 1,file folder “1952—Marriage Council of Philadelphia,Contract with University of Pennsylvania,”University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania。
[135] “The Roman Catholic Church and the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania,”undated,series UPC 1.4,box 2,file folder “Department of Ob-Gyn,”University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania.
[136] I.S.拉夫丁1960年7月15日致富兰克林·佩恩的信，series UPC 1.4,box 2,file folder “Department of Ob-Gyn,”University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania。
[137] I.S.拉夫丁与教宗庇护十二世的合影，UPT 50 R252,box 182,file folder 56,Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania。
[138] I.S.拉夫丁1964年12月24日致罗兰·T.阿迪斯夫人的信，series UPC 1.4,box 15,file folder “VPMA,”University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania。
[139] I.S.拉夫丁对希拉里·科普罗夫斯基日渐不信任，这从他那个时期的信函中可以看出。“科普罗夫斯基博士或许是一位名人，但是我以前质疑过他的道德，现在要再次质疑。”拉夫丁在1960年4月8日写信给宾大校长盖洛德·P.哈恩韦尔说。在这之前，科普罗夫斯基违背了他对威斯塔研究所董事会的诺言，并未资助一位他从英格兰招聘来的科学家。（见I.S.拉夫丁1960年致盖洛德·哈恩韦尔的信，UPA 4,box 114,file folder 17,“Wistar Institute IV 1955—1960,”Office of the President Records,Gaylord Probasco Harnwell Administration,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania。）
[140] I.S.拉夫丁1947年1月11日致玛格丽特·里德·刘易斯的信，UPT 50 R252,box 68,file folder 15,Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania。
[141] I.S.拉夫丁1956年3月21日致威廉·F.麦克利曼斯的信，UPT 50 R252,box 68,file folder 15,Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania。
[142] Hilary Koprowski,“The Viral Concept of the Etiology of Cancer”(publication title unknown),page 57,UPT 50 R252,box 22,file folder 24,Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania;Betsy Meredith,telephone interview.
[143] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2014年7月8日写给作者的电子邮件。
[144] Hugo Lagercrantz and Jean-Pierre Changeux,“The Emergence of Human Consciousness:From Fetal to Neonatal Life,”Pediatric Research 65(2009):255—60,www.nature.com/pr/journal/v65/n3/full/pr200950a.html.
[145] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2012年10月3日与作者的访谈。
[146] Leonard Hayflick and Paul S.Moorhead,“The Serial Cultivation of Human Diploid Cell Strains,”Experimental Cell Research 25,no.3(1961):587.
[147] 出处同上，588。
[148] 出处同上。
[149] Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology,Biennial Report:1958—1959,cover and “Contents”page.
[150] 出处同上，26。
[151] Jules Verne,Journey to the Centre of the Earth(1864;New York:Bantam/Dell,Bantam Classic Reissue,May 2006),143.
[152] Alexis Carrel,“On the Permanent Life of Cells Outside the Organism,”Journal of Experimental Medicine 15(1912):516—30,www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2124948/pdf/516.pdf.
[153] “Dr.Carrel's Miracles in Surgery Win the Nobel Prize,”New York Times,October 13,1912,pp.78—79.http://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1912/10/13/100594519.html?pageNumber=78.
[154] “Isolated Tissue Holds Life 12 Years in Test,”New York Tribune,January 6,1924.
[155] “Medicine:Carrel's Man,”Time,September 16,1935;Alexis Carrel,Man,the Unknown(New York:Harper & Brothers,1935).
[156] Wilton R.Earle et al.,“Production of Malignancy in Vitro IV:The Mouse Fibroblast Cultures and Changes Seen in the Living Cells,”Journal of the National Cancer Institute 4(1943):165—69.
[157] Leonard Hayflick and Paul S.Moorhead,“The Serial Cultivation of Human Diploid Cell Strains,”Experimental Cell Research 25,no.3(1961):591.
[158] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2014年11月19日与作者的访谈。
[159] John F.Kennedy to American Association of Newspaper Editors,Washington,DC,April 21,1960,Papers of John F.Kennedy.Prepresidential Papers.Senate Files.Series 12.1.Speech Files,1953—1960.Box 908,Folder “American Society of Newspaper Editors,” Washington,DC,http://www.jfklibrary.org/Research/Research-Aids/JFK-Speeches/American-Society-of-Newspaper-Editors_19600421.aspx.
[160] 保罗·穆尔黑德，2012年11月14日与作者的访谈。
[161] Hayflick and Moorhead,“Serial Cultivation,”601.
[162] 出处同上；Leonard Hayflick,“Citation Classics,”Current Contents 26(1978):144。
[163] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2012年10月4日与作者的访谈。
[164] Leonard Hayflick,How and Why We Age(New York:Ballantine Books,1994),127—29.
[165] Associated Press,“Pneumonia Study Points to Vaccine:U.S.Scientists Isolate Agent That Causes a Prevalent Form of the Disease,”New York Times,January 23,1962,p.1.
[166] Hayflick and Moorhead,“Serial Cultivation,”619.
[167] 出处同上，616—19。
[168] 出处同上，605。
[169] 出处同上，600—601。
[170] 出处同上，589。
[171] 出处同上，607—8。
[172] Chester M.Southam,Alice E.Moore,and Cornelius P.Rhoads,“Homotransplantation of Human Cell Lines,”Science 125(1957):158.
[173] Elinor Langer,“Human Experimentation:Cancer Studies at Sloan-Kettering Stir Public Debate on Medical Ethics,”Science 143(1964):552;Robert D.Mulford,“Experimentation on Human Beings,”Stanford Law Review 20(1967):110.
[174] Mulford,“Experimentation on Human Beings,”100;Rebecca Skloot,The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks(New York:Crown,2010),135.
[175] Southam,Moore,and Rhoads,“Homotransplantation of Human Cell Lines,”158.
[176] Hayflick and Moorhead,“Serial Cultivation,”608—9.
[177] Steve Hale,“Noted Cancer Researcher Urges ‘Imaginative’ Tests on Human,”Deseret News and Salt Lake Telegram,March 23,1964,p.B1.
[178] 威廉·埃尔金斯，2014年6月25日与作者的访谈。
[179] Leonard Hayflick et al.,“Preparation of Poliovirus Vaccines in a Human Fetal Diploid Cell Strain,”American Journal of Hygiene 75(1962):250.
[180] 出处同上。
[181] Hayflick and Moorhead,“Serial Cultivation,”609.
[182] 五十年的研究已经证明，细胞癌变的过程很复杂，涉及很多步骤；这个过程并不像拨动开关那样简单。并不是所有细胞都能明显归为癌或非癌。例如，有些细胞染色体数目异常，在实验室里会无限增殖，但是并没有滑向不受控制的生长，即癌症。
[183] World Health Organization Scientific Working Group on the Human Diploid Cell,“Report to the Director-General,”Geneva,July 16—18,1962,14.
[184] Leonard Hayflick,“The Limited in Vitro Lifetime of Human Diploid Cell Strains,”Experimental Cell Research 37(1965):628—29.
[185] 出处同上，631。
[186] Peyton Rous,“A Sarcoma of the Fowl Transmissible by an Agent Separable from the Tumor Cells,”Journal of Experimental Medicine 13,no.4(1911):397—411.
[187] 保罗·穆尔黑德，采访。
[188] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2014年11月19日与作者的访谈。
[189] J.H.Tjio and Theodore T.Puck,“Genetics of Somatic Mammalian Cells II:Chromosomal Constitution of Cells in Tissue Culture,”Journal of Experimental Medicine 108(1958):260—62.
[190] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2012年10月4日与作者的访谈。
[191] 佩顿·劳斯1961年4月24日致希拉里·科普罗夫斯基的信。由海弗利克提供。
[192] 天花疫苗（当时是儿童常规接种疫苗）的制备方法也很原始，即从感染了牛痘病毒的牛犊、羊或水牛的皮肤创口获取病毒。牛痘病毒是许多能够入侵海弗利克的人二倍体细胞的病毒之一。但是，人们对天花疫苗的兴趣已经减少：美国上次出现天花病例还是在1949年，1971年美国儿童不再常规接种天花疫苗。全世界最后一个自然出现的天花病例于1977年见于报道。
[193] David Maraniss,Barack Obama:The Story(New York:Simon & Schuster,2012),xxiii.
[194] Leonard Hayflick and Paul S.Moorhead,“The Serial Cultivation of Human Diploid Cell Strains,”Experimental Cell Research 25,no.3(1961):585—621.
[195] A.M.Rosenthal,“Red Tape Tangles India's Monkeys:Policy Shift Strands 5,000 Animals at Airport on Way Abroad for Medical Use,”New York Times,March 2,1958,p.26.
[196] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2012年10月3日与作者的访谈。
[197] Erling Norrby,Nobel Prizes and Life Sciences(Singapore:World Scientific,2010),70,and 123.
[198] Per Axelsson,“The Cutter Incident and the Development of a Swedish Polio Vaccine,1952—1957,”Dynamis 32,no.2(2012):312.
[199] 埃里克·吕克，2013年10月24日与作者的电话访谈；艾尔林·诺比，2013年9月20日与作者的访谈。
[200] World Health Organization,“Report to the Director-General,”July 24,1962,MHO/PA/140.62(World Health Organization Scientific Group on the Human Diploid Cell,Geneva,July 16—18,1962)；埃里克·吕克，电话访谈。
[201] 埃里克·吕克，电话访谈。
[202] Hayflick and Moorhead,“Serial Cultivation,”588.
[203] 伊娃·赫斯特伦，2013年9月26日与作者的访谈。
[204] 伊娃·赫斯特伦，1961年4月24日的日记。由伊娃·赫斯特伦提供。
[205] 出处同上，1961年5月2日。
[206] Leonard Hayflick et al.,“Preparation of Poliovirus Vaccines in a Human Fetal Diploid Cell Strain,”American Journal of Hygiene 75(1962):245.
[207] Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology,Biennial Research Report 1962—1963,22,Wistar Institute Archives,Philadelphia,PA.
[208] Department of Health Education,and Welfare,Public Health Service,NIH,Contract No:PH43—62—157,Feb.6,1962,1.由伦纳德·海弗利克提供。
[209] 出处同上，1；“Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheets as of 4/30/66,”p.4,UPT 50 R252,box 68,file folder 14,“Wistar Institute,1966,”Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania；“Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheets as of 10/31/67,”pages 2 and 4,UPT 50 R252,box 68,file folder 12,“Wistar Institute,1966—1967,”Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania。
[210] “The Wistar Institute Board of Managers Meeting,June 19,1962,”page 1,series UPC 4.1 VPMA,box 14,file folder “Wistar Institute,”University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania.
[211] National Institutes of Health,Contract no:PH43—62—157,Section 30:“Termination for the Convenience of Government,”part(g),p.HEW-315-6.
[212] 这部分和其他关于伊娃·厄恩霍尔姆的个人信息来自作者在2013年9月21日、22日与伊丽莎白·厄恩霍尔姆、霍坎·厄恩霍尔姆和拉尔斯·厄恩霍尔姆的访谈，以及与奥斯本·卡尔森的访谈，也参考了伊丽莎白·厄恩霍尔姆提供的文件。
[213] “Eva Ernholm:Bättre Upplysning—Färre Aborter Hävdar Ung Kristinehamnsgynekolog”(“Eva Ernholm:Better Education—Fewer Abortions,Claims Young Kristinehamn Gynecologist”),Nya Wermlandstidningens(Karlstad,Sweden),October 5,1963.原文为瑞典语；译者Lisa Tallroth。
[214] Per Gunnar Cassel,“Induced Legal Abortion in Sweden During 1939—1974:Change in Practice and Legal Reform,”Working Paper 2009:1(Stockholm:Stockholm University Demography Unit Department of Sociology,2009),4—5.
[215] “Swedish Medical Association:Rules for Physicians(Codex Ethicus Medicorum Svecorum),”Swedish Medical Journal 49,no.1(1951):1—3.
[216] Lena Lennerhed,Historier om ett brott(Stockholm:Bokförlaget Atlas,2008),引自英文版本：Cassel,“Induced Legal Abortion in Sweden,”5。
[217] Hayflick and Moorhead,“Serial Cultivation,”604.
[218] 估算基于默克公司每年制备风疹疫苗的WI—38细胞使用量。默克公司在最初制备风疹疫苗时，拥有大约1.2亿个倍增数低于20的WI—38细胞。
[219] Hayflick and Moorhead,“Serial Cultivation,”604.
[220] “Phoenix Abortion Ruling Delayed,”New York Times,July 28,1962.
[221] Eero Saksela and Paul S.Moorhead,“Aneuploidy in the Degenerative Phase of Serial Cultivation of Human Cell Strains,”Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 50(1963):390.
[222] J.P.Jacobs,C.M.Jones,and J.P.Baille,“Characteristics of a Human Diploid Cell Designated MRC-5,”Nature 227(1970):169.
[223] 《赖斯伯格备忘录》；《事实记录》，5—6。
[224] 《事实记录》，5—6；希拉里·科普罗夫斯基1962年10月6日致世卫组织W.C.科伯恩的信，1,investigations 9,folder 4,Directors' Files,Office of the Director,National Institutes of Health。
[225] 《事实记录》，5—6。
[226] D.G.埃文斯1975年8月20日致罗纳德·拉蒙-哈弗斯的信，attachment,1—2,investigations 9,folder 1,Directors' Files,Office of the Director,National Institutes of Health。
[227] 《施赖弗报告》，3。
[228] 伦纳德·海弗利克2015年10月27日写给作者的信。
[229] Edward Shorter,“The Health Century Oral History Collection,”interviewee:Dr.Bernice Eddy,December 4,1986,page 1,transcript at the National Library of Medicine,National Institutes of Health.
[230] 出处同上，12—15。
[231] J.A.莫里斯等1971年9月27日致罗伯特·Q.马斯顿（国家卫生研究院院长）的备忘录。该备忘录重印于Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization and Government Research of the Committee on Government Operations,Consumer Safety Act of 1972:Hearings on Titles I and II of S.3419,92nd Cong.,2nd sess.,April 20 and 21 and May 3 and 4,1972,519,779。
[232] Shorter,“Health Century,”Bernice Eddy interview,3—4.
[233] Neal Nathanson and Alexander Langmuir,“The Cutter Incident:Poliomyelitis Following Formaldehyde-Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccination in the United States During the Spring of 1955 II:The Relationship of Poliomyelitis to Cutter Vaccine,”American Journal of Hygiene 78(1963):39.
[234] Paul A.Offit,“The Cutter Incident,50 Years Later,”New England Journal of Medicine 352(2005):1411.
[235] David M.Oshinsky,Polio:An American Story(New York:Oxford University Press,2005),237—238.
[236] 出处同上，519。
[237] “原代”是指猴肾细胞使用一次后即被处理掉，而不会像海弗利克的人胎细胞那样在培养皿中增殖许多代。
[238] Bernice E.Eddy and Sarah E.Stewart,“Characteristics of the SE Polyoma Virus,”American Journal of Public Health 49,no.11(1959):1492.
[239] Hilary Koprowski,“Live Poliomyelitis Virus Vaccines:Present Status and Problems for the Future,”Journal of the American Medical Association 178,no.12(1961):1153—54.
[240] Robert N.Hull,James R.Minner,and Carmine C.Mascoli,“New Viral Agents Recovered from Tissue Cultures of Monkey Kidney Cells III:Recovery of Additional Agents Both from Cultures of Monkey Tissues and Directly from Tissues and Excreta,”American Journal of Hygiene 68(1958):40.
[241] Bernice E.Eddy et al.,“Tumors Induced in Hamsters by Injection of Rhesus Monkey Kidney Cell Extracts,”Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 107,no.1(1961):191—97.
[242] 出处同上，193。
[243] Leo Morris et al.,“Surveillance of Poliomyelitis in the United States,1962—65,”Public Health Reports 82,no.5(1967):418.
[244] Debbie Bookchin and Jim Schumacher,The Virus and the Vaccine:Contaminated Vaccine,Deadly Cancers and Government Neglect(New York:St.Martin's,2004),71—73.该书详细得多地讲述了SV40的故事，建议有兴趣的读者读一读。
[245] B.H.Sweet and M.R.Hilleman,“The Vacuolating Virus SV40,”Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 105(1960):420—27,www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pubmed/13774265.这篇论文第561至568
页可从此处获得：Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization and Government Research of the Committee on Government Operations,Consumer Safety Act of 1972:Hearings。
[246] 伯尼斯·埃迪致约瑟夫·斯马德尔的备忘录，“The Presence of an Oncogenic Substance or Virus in Monkey Kidney Cell Cultures,”July 6,1960,Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization and Government Research of the Committee on Government Operations,Consumer Safety Act of 1972:Hearings,551。
[247] 约瑟夫·斯马德尔致伯尼斯·埃迪的备忘录，“Requirements for Outside Lectures,”October 24,1960,Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization and Government Research of the Committee on Government Operations,Consumer Safety Act of 1972:Hearings,549—50。
[248] Shorter,“Health Century,”Bernice Eddy interview,9.
[249] Sweet and Hilleman,“Vacuolating Virus SV40,”425—26.
[250] 出处同上。
[251] H.Koprowski,“Tin Anniversary of the Development of Live Virus Vaccine,”Journal of the American Medical Association 174(1960):975.
[252] 为了简洁，本书使用“脊髓灰质炎疫苗病毒”这个词。但是，海弗利克使用的科普罗夫斯基脊髓灰质炎疫苗病毒叫作CHAT，是1型脊髓灰质炎病毒。在三个脊髓灰质炎病毒类型中，1型导致了大多数病例。然而，市场上的脊髓灰质炎疫苗能防御全部三种类型的病毒：1型、2型和3型。关于这三类病毒的发现，以及它们的区别，参见David M.Oshinsky,Polio:An American Story（New York:Oxford University Press，2005），117—21。
[253] Hilary Koprowski and Stanley A.Plotkin,“Notes on Acceptance Criteria and Requirements for Live Poliovirus Vaccines”(World Health Organization Study Group on Requirements for Poliomyelitis Vaccine［Live,Attenuated Poliovirus］,Geneva,November 7—12,1960),8—9.WHO/BS/IR/85/1 November 1960.
[254] 出处同上，10。
[255] Leonard Hayflick et al.,“Preparation of Poliovirus Vaccines in a Human Fetal Diploid Cell Strain,”American Journal of Hygiene 75(1962):240—58.
[256] Alan P.Goffe,James Hale,and P.S.Gardner,“Letter to the Editor,”Lancet 277,no.7177(1961):612.
[257] D.I.Magrath,Kate Russell,and J.O.Tobin,“Preliminary Communications:Vacuolating Agent,”British Medical Journal 2,no.5247(1961):287,http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1969653/.
[258] 希拉里·科普罗夫斯基1961年4月14日致议员肯尼斯·罗伯茨（众议院州际和对外商务委员会卫生与安全小组委员会主席）的信，见Polio Vaccines:Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce of the House of Representatives,Eighty-Seventh Congress,First Session,on Developments with Respect to the Manufacture of Live Virus Polio Vaccine and Results of Utilization of Killed Virus Polio Vaccine,March 16—17,1961,311—12。
[259] S.A.Plotkin,H.Koprowski,and J.Stokes Jr.,“Clinical Trials in Infants of Orally Administered Attenuated Poliomyelitis Viruses,”Pediatrics 23,no.6(1959):1060.
[260] Keerti Shah and Neal Nathanson,“Human Exposure to SV40:Review and Comment,”American Journal of Epidemiology 103,no.1(1976):5.
[261] Eleanor Roosevelt,“My Day,”June 25,1956.重印于The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers Project,papers.columbian.gwu.edu。
[262] Roger Vaughan,Listen to the Music:The Life of Hilary Koprowski(New York:SpringerVerlag,2000),52;Edward Hooper,The River:A Journey to the Source of HIV and AIDS(Boston,New York,and London:Little,Brown,1999),406.
[263] 克林顿州立劳改场1960年出生记录。由爱德华·胡珀提供。
[264] Mary Q.Hawkes,Excellent Effect:The Edna Mahan Story(Arlington,VA:American Correctional Association,1994),109—10.
[265] Plotkin,Koprowski,and Stokes,“Clinical Trials in Infants,”1061.
[266] 出处同上，1041。
[267] Hooper,The River,424.
[268] Hayflick et al.,“Preparation of Poliovirus Vaccines,”251,257.
[269] 出处同上，253。
[270] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2014年11月19日与作者的访谈。
[271] Koprowski,“Live Poliomyelitis Virus Vaccines,”1154—55.
[272] Associated Press,“2 Companies Halt Salk-Shot Output,Seek to Eliminate a Monkey Virus,Believed Harmless,Found in Some Vaccine,”New York Times,July 26,1961.
[273] Bookchin and Schumacher,Virus and the Vaccine,103—4.
[274] “The Great Polio Vaccine Cancer Cover-up:Polio Shots May Kill You,”National Enquirer,August 20,1961,1,14—15,25.
[275] Hayflick et al.,“Preparation of Poliovirus Vaccines,”253.
[276] 出处同上，240—58。
[277] June 19,1961,draft of Hayflick et al.,“Preparation of Poliovirus Vaccines,”page 24,file folder “CHAT-WIHL,”Stanley Plotkin private papers,Doylestown,PA.
[278] Hayflick et al.,“Preparation of Poliovirus Vaccines,”256.
[279] Shorter,“Health Century,”Bernice Eddy interview,10.
[280] 罗德里克·默里（生物制品标准部主管）1961年1月16日通过约瑟夫·斯马德尔致伯尼斯·埃迪博士的备忘录，见Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization and Government Research of the Committee on Government Operations,Consumer Safety Act of 1972:Hearings,592。
[281] 斯马德尔致埃迪的备忘录，“Requirements for Outside Lectures,”549。
[282] Shorter,“Health Century,”Bernice Eddy interview,7.
[283] Ruth Kirschstein,oral history,part 2,interview by Victoria Harden and Caroline Hannaway,October 29,1998,page 31,Office of NIH History,National Institutes of Health,Bethesda,Maryland.
[284] Edward Shorter,“The Health Century Oral History Collection,”interviewee:Maurice Hilleman,February 6,1987,page 8,transcript available at the National Library of Medicine,National Institutes of Health.
[285] Bernice Eddy et al.,“Identification of the Oncogenic Substance in Rhesus Monkey Kidney Cell Cultures as Simian Virus 40,”Virology 17(1962):65—75.
[286] Hilary Koprowski et al.,“Transformation of Cultures of Human Tissue Infected with Simian Virus SV40,”Journal of Cellular and Comparative Physiology 59,no.3(1962):281—92,http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jcp.1030590308/abstract.
[287] Harvey M.Shein and John F.Enders,“Transformation Induced by Simian Virus 40 in Human Renal Cell Cultures I:Morphology and Growth Characteristics,”Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 48(1962):1164—72;Harvey M.Shein,John F.Enders,and Jeana D.Levinthal,“Transformation Induced by Simian Virus 40 in Human Renal Cell Cultures II:Cell-Virus Relationships,”Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 48(1962):1350—57.
[288] Shah and Nathanson,“Human Exposure to SV40,”3.
[289] 枢机主教约翰·奥哈拉（费城大主教）1959年6月26日致玛丽·雅各布嬷嬷的信，Accession R1990.004,Chancery Files,Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center。
[290] 詹姆斯·A.普帕尔，2014年3月20日和11月19日与作者的访谈。
[291] Lisa Levenstein,A Movement Without Marches:African American Women and the Politics of Poverty in Postwar Philadelphia(Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press,2009),157—80.
[292] 出处同上，167；Donna Gentile O'Donnell,Provider of Last Resort:The Story of the Closure of the Philadelphia General Hospital(Philadelphia:Camino Books,2005):96。
[293] Levenstein,A Movement Without Marches,166,169,175—76.
[294] 出处同上，165；“Ten Year Report:Philadelphia General Hospital,”October 1961,pages 1—10,collection 80—101.2(“Philadelphia General Hospital,Ten Year Report,1952—1962”),Philadelphia City Archive。
[295] 出处同上，1。
[296] 出处同上，4。
[297] Joseph S.Pagano et al.,“The Response of Premature Infants to Infection with Attenuated Poliovirus,”Journal of Pediatrics 29,no.5(1962):794—807;Joseph S.Pagano,Stanley A.Plotkin,and Donald Cornely,“The Response of Premature Infants to Infection with Type 3 Attenuated Poliovirus,”Journal of Pediatrics 65,no.2(1964):165—75.
[298] 斯坦利·普洛特金，2016年7月20日写给作者的电子邮件。
[299] Pagano,Plotkin,and Cornely,“Response of Premature Infants,”174.
[300] 出处同上，807。
[301] 出处同上，806。
[302] 斯坦利·普洛特金，2015年5月25日与作者的访谈。
[303] Pagano,Plotkin,and Cornely,“Response of Premature Infants,”794.
[304] Leo Morris et al.,“Surveillance of Poliomyelitis in the United States,1962—65,”Public Health Reports 82,no.5(1967):419.
[305] 詹姆斯·A.普帕尔，2014年3月20日与作者的访谈。
[306] Katherine Auchy,St.Vincent's Hospital for Women and Children:Report of Inspection and Evaluation,Department of Public Welfare of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania,March 1963,p.2,Cardinal Krol Papers,Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center;Ruth McClain,St.Vincent's Hospital for Women and Children:Report of Inspection and Evaluation,Department of Public Welfare of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania,April 1966,p.3,Cardinal Krol Papers,Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center.
[307] Auchy,St.Vincent's Hospital for Women and Children:Report of Inspection and Evaluation.
[308] 关于圣文森特妇幼医院这些少女和妇女生活的材料来自：迪伊·克鲁森，2014年5月5日与作者的电话访谈；匿名人士，2014年4月12日与作者的电话访谈；弗兰·斯卡利塞，2014年4月14、15日与作者的电话访谈。
[309] McClain,Report of Inspection and Evaluation,Department of Public Welfare of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania,April 1966,p.5.
[310] 玛丽·雅各布嬷嬷（管理人员）1959年6月18日致约瑟夫·斯托克斯的信，accession R1990.004,Chancery Files,Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center。
[311] 玛丽·雅各布嬷嬷1959年7月1日致枢机主教约翰·奥哈拉的信，accession R1990.004,Chancery Files,Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center。
[312] “Milestones,Sep.5,1960,”Time,September 5,1960,http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,826583,00.html.
[313] 奥哈拉1959年6月26日致雅各布的信。
[314] 希拉里·科普罗夫斯基1960年3月7日致枢机主教约翰·奥哈拉的信，accession R1990.004,Chancery Files,Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center。
[315] 玛丽·雅各布嬷嬷1960年3月17日致枢机主教约翰·奥哈拉的信，accession R1990.004,Chancery Files,Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center。
[316] 枢机主教约翰·奥哈拉1960年3月22日致玛丽·雅各布嬷嬷的信，accession R1990.004,Chancery Files,Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center。
[317] 詹姆斯·普帕尔，2014年3月20日与作者的访谈。
[318] T.W.Norton,Richard Carp,and Stanley A.Plotkin,“Summary of Feeding Results with Attenuated Polioviruses Grown in Human Diploid Cell Strains,”Virus Diseases/WP/6,July 5,1962,1—2(World Health Organization Scientific Group on the Human Diploid Cell,Geneva,July 16—18,1962).
[319] “Ruth L.Kirschstein oral history interview,part 2,”Victoria Harden and Caroline Hannaway,October 29,1998,p.5,Office of NIH History,Oral History Archive,Bethesda,MD,https://history.nih.gov/archives/oral_histories.html;Nicholas Wade,“Division of Biologics Standards:The Boat That Never Rocked,”Science 175(1972):1226.
[320] Leonard B.Seeff et al.,“A Serologic Follow-up of the 1942 Epidemic of Post-vaccination Hepatitis in the United States Army,”New England Journal of Medicine 316(1987):966.
[321] John Farley,To Cast Out Disease:A History of the International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation(1913—1951)(New York:Oxford University Press USA,2004),173,176.
[322] Roderick Murray et al.,“Hepatitis Carrier State II:Confirmation of Carrier State by Transmission Experiments in Volunteers,”Journal of the American Medical Association 154,no.13(1954):1072—74.
[323] David J.Rothman,Strangers at the Bedside:A History of How Law and Bioethics Transformed Medical Decision Making(New York:Aldine de Gruyter,1991,2003),30—69.
[324] William L.Laurence,“Drugs to Combat Malaria Are Tested in Prisons for Army,”New York Times,March 5,1945,1,30.
[325] 今天，根据美国在1978年颁布实施的规定，在政府资助的人体实验中，囚犯会受到额外的保护。例如，如果囚犯是研究中的受试者，那么审批人体试验的伦理委员会就必须包括一名囚犯或囚犯代表。囚犯参与或拒绝参与试验，都不得影响他们的假释决定。此外，研究项目必须与囚犯有特别的关联，例如针对在监狱中出现频率极高的疾病的研究，或者针对监禁原因和影响的研究。
[326] Rothman,Strangers at the Bedside,33—34.
[327] 出处同上，38。
[328] 出处同上，51—60。
[329] Murray et al.,“Hepatitis Carrier State II,”1072.
[330] “Kirschstein oral history interview,part 2,”October 29,1998,p.4.
[331] 约翰·芬利森，2016年6月24日与作者的电话访谈。
[332] “Kirschstein oral history interview,part 2,”p.4.
[333] “Continuously Cultured Tissue Cells and Viral Vaccines:Potential Advantages May Be Realized and Potential Hazards Obviated by Careful Planning and Monitoring:Report of a Committee on Tissue Culture Viruses and Vaccines,”Science 139(1963):15—20.
[334] 出处同上，17。
[335] L.Hayflick et al.,“Choice of a Cell System for Vaccine Production,”Science 140(1963):766—68.
[336] World Health Organization,“Report to the Director-General,” MOH/PA/140.62,July 24,1962,p.5(World Health Organization Scientific Group on the Human Diploid Cell,Geneva,July 16—181962).
[337] 出处同上，18,24。
[338] Hayflick et al.,“Choice of a Cell System,”768.
[339] World Health Organization,“Report to the Director-General,”19,24.
[340] 出处同上，24。
[341] Joseph S.Pagano et al.,“The Response and the Lack of Spread in Swedish School Children Given an Attenuated Poliovirus Vaccine Prepared in a Human Diploid Cell Strain,”American Journal of Hygiene 79(1964):83.
[342] F.Buser et al.,“Immunization with Live Attenuated Polio Virus Prepared in Human Diploid Cell Strains,with Special Reference to the WM-3 Strain,”in Proceedings, Symposium on the Characterization and Uses of Human Diploid Cell Strains(Opatija:International Association of Microbiological Societies,1963),386.
[343] Drago Ikć et al.,“Postvaccinal Reactions After Application of Poliovaccine Live,Oral Prepared in Human Diploid Cell Strains WI-38,” Proceedings,Symposium on the Characterization and Uses of Human Diploid Cell Strains(Opatija:International Association of Microbiological Societies,1963),405,406,413.
[344] 希拉里·科普罗夫斯基致弗雷·C.马科维亚克的信，December 11,1963,folder “Outgoing Correspondence,”Stanley Plotkin private papers,Doylestown,PA。
[345] Norman McAlister Gregg,“Congenital Cataract Following German Measles in the Mother,”Transactions of the Ophthalmological Society of Australia 3(1941):40.
[346] P.M.Dunn,“Perinatal Lessons from the Past:Sir Norman Gregg,ChM,MC,of Sydney(1892—1966) and Rubella Embryopathy,”Archives of Disease in Childhood,Fetal and Neonatal Edition 92,no.6(2007):F513—14,www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2675410/.
[347] 玛格丽特·伯吉斯，2015年2月23日写给作者的电子邮件；Margaret Burgess,“Gregg's Rubella Legacy 1941—1991,”Medical Journal of Australia 155(1991):355。
[348] Erwin Heinz Ackerknecht,A Short History of Medicine, rev.ed.
(Baltimore and London:The Johns Hopkins University Press,1982),129.本书英文首版的出版信息为：Ronald Press Company,New York,1955。
[349] William George Maton,“Some Account of a Rash Liable to Be Mistaken for Scarlatina,”Medical Transactions Published by the College of Physicians of London 5(1815):149—65.
[350] Henry Veale,“History of an Epidemic of Rötheln,with Observations on Its Pathology,”Edinburgh Medical Journal 12(1866):404—14.
[351] Dorothy Horstmann,“Maxwell Finland Lecture:Viral Vaccines and Their Ways,”Reviews of Infectious Diseases 1,no.3(1979):510.
[352] Alfred D.Heggie and Frederick C.Robbins,“Natural Rubella Acquired After Birth:Clinical Features and Complications,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 118(1969):15.
[353] Gregg,“Congenital Cataract,”42.
[354] Burgess,“Gregg's Rubella Legacy,”355.
[355] Gregg,“Congenital Cataract,”42.
[356] 出处同上，35—46。
[357] C.Swan et al.,“Congenital Defects in Infants Following Infectious Diseases During Pregnancy:With Special Attention to the Relationship Between German Measles and Cataract,Deaf-Mutism,Heart Disease and Microcephaly,and to the Period of Pregnancy in Which Occurrence of Rubella Is Followed by Congenital Abnormalities,”Medical Journal of Australia 2(1943):201—10.
[358] “Rubella and Congenital Malformations,”Lancet 1(1944):316.
[359] “Congenital Defects Following Maternal Rubella,”Journal of the American Medical Association 130(1946):574—75.
[360] 没有书面记录显示在这次英国风疹疫情中有多少人感染，但是专家伊丽莎白·米勒指出，在那个时代没有发生疫情的年份，英格兰和威尔士有两三百名儿童患有先天性风疹综合征。米勒估计，风疹疫情后出生的先天性风疹综合征婴儿可能是这个数字的十倍。感兴趣的读者可以参阅：Elizabeth Miller,“Rubella in the United Kingdom,”Epidemiology and Infection 107(1991):34。
[361] Morris Greenberg,Ottavio Pellitteri,and Jerome Barton,“Frequency of Defects in Infants Whose Mothers Had Rubella During Pregnancy,”Journal of the American Medical Association 165,no.6(1957):675—76.
[362] Stella Chess,“Autism in Children with Congenital Rubella,”Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia 1,no.1(1971):33—47;Brynn E.Berger,Ann Marie NavarBoggan,and Saad B.Omer,“Congenital Rubella Syndrome and Autism Spectrum Disorder Prevented by Rubella Vaccination:United States,2001—2010,”BMC Public Health 11(2011):340,www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3123590/#B7.
[363] John Fry,J.B.Dillane,and Lionel Fry,“Rubella,1962,”British Medical Journal 2,no.5308(1962):833—34.
[364] Elizabeth Miller,“Rubella in the United Kingdom,”Epidemiology and Infection 107(1991):34;C.S.Peckham,“Congenital Rubella in the United Kingdom Before 1970:The Prevaccine Era,”Reviews of Infectious Diseases 7(supp.1)(1985):S11—21.
[365] “News in Brief,”Times(London),Thursday,March 15,1962,6.
[366] “German Measles at Eton,”Times(London),Tuesday,March 27,1962,16.
[367] Eric Todd,“Shackleton's Old Tricks Serve Him Well Against Yorkshire:Wilson Consoles the Partisans,”Guardian,June 28,1962,10.
[368] gosh为“天哪，啊呀”之义。——译注
[369] A Mother,“Difficult Duty,”Guardian,August 9,1963,6.
[370] Thomas H.Weller and Franklin A.Neva,“Propagation in Tissue Culture of Cytopathic Agents from Patients with Rubella-Like Illness,”Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 111(October 1962):216—25.
[371] 这个政府部门的名称变更过许多次，如今叫疾病控制与预防中心，但是原来的首字母缩写“CDC”始终未改。［根据时期不同，本书中的“CDC”分别译为“传染疾病中心”（1970年6月24日以前）、“疾病控制中心”（1970—1992年）、“疾病控制与预防中心”（1992年至今）。—译注］
[372] Paul D.Parkman,Edward L.Buescher,and Malcolm S.Artenstein,“Recovery of Rubella Virus from Army Recruits,”Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 111(1962):225—30.
[373] Lee Plotkin,Anecdotes of My Life,a self-published memoir(Lee Plotkin,Stanley Plotkin,and Brenda Magalaner,1986),1986,38—45,57—61,66—71.
[374] 斯坦利·普洛特金的传记信息来自作者在2013和2015年对普洛特金的采访，采访的具体日期见参考文献；来自Anecdotes of My Life,a 1986 memoir by Stanley Plotkin's mother,Lee Plotkin；还来自 Stanley A.Plotkin,“The Late Sequelae of Arrowsmith,”Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 21(2002):807—8。
[375] 出处同上，808。
[376] “Memorandum to Editors Concerning Press,Radio and Television Conference,”June 15,1959,UPA 4,box 114,file folder “Lederle Laboratories National Drug Company(1955—1960),”Office of the President Records,Gaylord P.Harnwell Admin.1955—1960,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania.
[377] Stanley A.Plotkin,John A.Dudgeon,and A.Melvin Ramsay,“Laboratory Studies on Rubella and the Rubella Syndrome,”British Medical Journal 2,no.5368(1963):1299.
[378] 出处同上。
[379] J.A.Dudgeon,N.R.Butler,and Stanley A.Plotkin,“Further Serological Studies on the Rubella Syndrome,”British Medical Journal 2,no.5402(1964):159—60.
[380] L.S.Oshiro,N.J.Schmidt,and E.H.Lennette,“Electron Microscopic Studies of Rubella Virus,”Journal of General Virology 5(1969):205.
[381] Robert S.Duszak,“Congenital Rubella Syndrome—Major Review,”Optometry 80(2009):38—39;Van Hung Pham et al.,“Rubella Epidemic in Vietnam:Characteristic of Rubella Virus Genes from Pregnant Women and Their Fetuses/Newborns with Congenital Rubella Syndrome,”Journal of Clinical Virology 57(2013):152.
[382] William S.Webster,“Teratogen Update:Congenital Rubella,”Teratology 58(1998):16,http://teratology.org/updates/58pg13.pdf;J.E.Banatvala and D.W.G.Brown,“Seminar:Rubella,”Lancet 363(2004):1129.
[383] Joseph A.Bellanti et al.,“Congenital Rubella:Clinicopathologic,Virologic,and Immunologic Studies,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 110(1965):465,470;Thong Van Nguyen,Van Hung Pham,and Kenji Abe,“Pathogenesis of Congenital Rubella Infection in Human Fetuses:Viral Infection in the Ciliary Body Could Play an Important Role in Cataractogenesis,”EBioMedicine 2(2015):59—60.
[384] Webster,“Teratogen Update,”17—20.
[385] 批评者最初不相信澳大利亚人诺曼·格雷格在1941年的发现，原因之一在于格雷格的研究是“回溯性的”，也就是说他是在婴儿出生并且被确诊患有先天性风疹后，才去询问婴儿母亲的风疹病史。相反，这项1988年发表于《柳叶刀》上、发现胚胎全都受影响的研究则是前瞻性的，科学家从孕妇在孕早期确诊患风疹开始追踪调查，并在婴儿出生后观察婴儿的情况。
[386] Stanley A.Plotkin and Antti Vaheri,“Human Fibroblasts Infected with Rubella Produce a Growth Inhibitor,”Science 156(1967):659—61.
[387] W.E.Rawls,J.Desmyter,and J.L.Melnick,“Virus Carrier Cells and Virus Free Cells in Fetal Rubella,”Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 129(1968):477—83;Webster,“Teratogen Update,”21.
[388] W.Dimech et al.,“Evaluation of Three Immunoassays Used for Detection of Anti-Rubella Virus Immunoglobulin M Antibodies,”Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology 12,no.9(September 2005):1104—8,www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1235794/.
[389] Gisella Enders et al.,“Outcome of Confirmed Periconceptual Maternal Rubella,”Lancet 331,no.8600(1988):1445—47(首版为vol.1,no.8600).
[390] M.M.Desmond,“Congenital Rubella Encephalitis,Course and Early Sequelae,”Journal of Pediatrics 71,no.3(1967):311—31.
[391] Jill M.Forrest,Margaret A.Menser,and J.A.Burgess,“High Frequency of Diabetes Mellitus in Young Adults with Congenital Rubella,”Lancet 297,no.7720(1971):332—34.
[392] John F.O'Neill,“The Ocular Manifestations of Congenital Infection:A Study of the Early Effect and Long-Term Outcome of Maternally Transmitted Rubella and Toxoplasmosis,”Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society 96(1998):858—68.
[393] Stephen A.Winchester et al.,“Persistent Intraocular Rubella Infection in a Patient with Fuchs' Uveitis and Congenital Rubella Syndrome,”Journal of Clinical Microbiology 51,no.5(2013):1622—24,www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3647901/.
[394] Margaret A.Menser,Lorimer Dods,and J.D.Harley,“A Twenty-five-Year Follow-up of Congenital Rubella,”Lancet 290,no.7530(1967):1347—50.
[395] Miller,“Rubella in the United Kingdom,”32;John J.Witte et al.,“Epidemiology of Rubella,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 118(1969):107.
[396] 斯坦利·普洛特金1963年11月4日致阿拉斯泰尔·达吉恩的信，folder “Correspondence-out,October 1963—December 1964,”Stanley Plotkin private papers,Doylestown,PA。
[397] William S.Webster,“Teratogen Update:Congenital Rubella,”Teratology 58(1998):13,http://teratology.org/updates/58pg13.pdf.
[398] 斯坦利·A.普洛特金致希拉里·科普罗夫斯基的备忘录, “Reference:Christmas Party,”December 11,1963,folder “Correspondenceout,October 1963—December 1964,”Stanley Plotkin private papers,Doylestown,PA。
[399] Vincent Cristofalo,“Profile in Gerontology:Leonard Hayflick,PhD,”Contemporary Gerontology 9,no.3(2003):83.
[400] Eugene B.Buynak et al.,“Live Attenuated Rubella Virus Vaccines Prepared in Duck Embryo Cell Culture,I:Development and Clinical Testing,”Journal of the American Medical Association 204,no.3(1968):195.
[401] David J.Rothman,Strangers at the Bedside:A History of How Law and Bioethics Transformed Medical Decision Making(New York:Aldine de Gruyter,1991,2003),40,51—59.
[402] “Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheets as of 4/30/66,”p.4,UPT 50 R252,box 68,file folder 14,“Wistar Institute,1966,”Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania;“Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheets as of 10/31/67,”p.4,UPT 50 R252,box 68,file folder 12,“Wistar Institute,1966—1967,”Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania;Robert Dechert,“Memorandum of RD's Discussion with Dr.Thomas Norton and Dr.Stanley Plotkin About the Work of the Latter,”p.2,January 12,1968,folder “DBS,”Stanley Plotkin private papers.
[403] Alan D.Lourie to Thomas Norton,“Discoveries or Inventions Developed Under Public Health Service Research Grants and Awards,”March 13,1968,p.3,folder “SKF Correspondence 1968,”Stanley Plotkin Private papers,Doylestown,PA.
[404] 斯坦利·普洛特金1963年11月4日致阿拉斯泰尔·达吉恩的信，folder “Correspondence-out,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。[405] Wolfgang Saxon,“Harry Martin Meyer Jr.,72;Helped Create Rubella Vaccine,”New York Times,August 25,2001,www.nytimes.com/2001/08/25/us/harry-martin-meyer-jr-72-helped-create-rubella-vaccine.html.
[406] Paul D.Parkman et al.,“Attenuated Rubella Virus I.:Development and Laboratory Characterization,”New England Journal of Medicine 275(1966):569—74;Harry M.Meyer Jr.Paul D.Parkman,and Theodore C.Panos,“Attenuated Rubella Virus II:Production of an Experimental Live-Virus Vaccine and Clinical Trial,”New England Journal of Medicine 275,no.11(1966):575.
[407] Stanley A.Plotkin,Andre Boué and Joelle G.Boué,“The In Vitro Growth of Rubella Virus in Human Embryo Cells,”American Journal of Epidemiology 81,no.1(1965):71—85;Stanley A.Plotkin and Antti Vaheri,“Human Fibroblasts Infected with Rubella Produce a Growth Inhibitor,”Science 156(1967):659—61.
[408] 威斯塔研究所董事会1964年6月22日会议纪要。这些会议纪要在宾夕法尼亚州费城威斯塔研究所一部会议纪要装订集的第195页。
[409] Communicable Disease Center,“Rubella,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 13,no.12(1964):93—101.
[410] 普洛特金和同事之所以报告的是黑人新生儿的数据，是因为费城综合医院的几乎所有新生儿都是黑人。实际上，他们计算的是患有先天性心脏缺陷和眼疾——这是先天性风疹综合征的一个特征——的婴儿的数量。先天性风疹综合征的最常见症状失聪，很难在新生儿身上诊断，也就没有纳入统计中。他们估计，实际上费城综合医院有近1.4％的新生儿受到感染。
[411] “Surveillance Summary:Rubella—United States,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 19,no.34(1970):335;J.J.Witte et al.,“Epidemiology of Rubella,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 118,no.1(July 1969):107—11.
[412] Stanley Plotkin,index cards cataloging infants born with congenital rubella syndrome,Stanley Plotkin private papers.
[413] Stanley Plotkin,“List of Patients,”file folder “Rubella Patients,”Stanley Plotkin private papers.
[414] J.M.Lindquist et al.,“Congenital Rubella Syndrome as a Systemic Infection:Studies of Affected Infants Born in Philadelphia,USA,”British Medical Journal 2(1965):1402.
[415] Stanley A.Plotkin,“Virologic Assistance in the Management of German Measles in Pregnancy,”Journal of the American Medical Association 190(1964):268.
[416] 匿名人士1964年4月2日致斯坦利·普洛特金的信，folder“Correspondence-in,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[417] Plotkin,“Virologic Assistance,”266—67.
[418] 出处同上，267。
[419] R.比弗致编辑的信，及J.D.普赖斯致编辑的信（标题皆是“Rubella and Termination of Pregnancy”) ,British Medical Journal 2,no.5416(October 24,1964):1075—76。
[420] 普赖斯致编辑的信，1076。
[421] Stanley A.Plotkin,“Rubella and Termination of Pregnancy”(unpublished letter to the editor of the British Medical Journal),November 20,1964,folder “Correspondence-out,”Stanley Plotkin private papers.
[422] 斯坦利·普洛特金，2012年12月18日与作者的访谈。
[423] 会议纪要，“Meeting of the Committee on Congenital Malformations,American Academy of Pediatrics,”May 8,1965,Philadelphia,file folder “Correspondence-in,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[424] Robert E.Hall,“Abortion in American Hospitals,”American Journal of Public Health 57,no.11(1967):1934.
[425] Robert E.Hall,“Therapeutic Abortion,Sterilization,and Contraception,”American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 91,no.4(1965):523.
[426] Leslie J.Reagan,Dangerous Pregnancies:Mothers,Disabilities,and Abortion in Modern America(Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press,2010),73—74.
[427] 出处同上，74—75。
[428] 出处同上，73。
[429] 斯坦利·普洛特金1965年2月5日致亨利·菲特曼博士的信，folder“Correspondence-out,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[430] 斯坦利·普洛特金1964年10月13日致伦纳德·M.波波维奇博士的信，folder “Correspondence-out,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[431] Alfred D.Heggie and Frederick C.Robbins,“Natural Rubella Acquired After Birth:Clinical Features and Complications,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 118(1969):15.
[432] National Communicable Disease Center,“Estimated Morbidity Associated with the 1964—1965 U.S.Rubella Epidemic,”in Rubella Surveillance Report No.1(Washington,DC:U.S.Department of Health,Education and Welfare,Public Health Service,June 1969),12.
[433] 出处同上，“Preface,”1。
[434] 斯坦利·普洛特金1964年1月23日致富兰克林·佩恩（宾夕法尼亚大学医院妇产科主任）的信，folder “Correspondence-out,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[435] 尽管风疹病毒会抑制细胞分裂，但来自第27号胎儿的肾细胞在培养瓶中生长了很久，足以分离四次。普洛特金猜测，之所以如此是因为他最初将细胞放进培养瓶时，被风疹病毒感染的细胞数量相对较少。
[436] 斯坦利·普洛特金1964年11月24日致莱斯特·艾森伯格医生（切里希尔医院妇产科）的信，folder “Correspondence-out,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[437] 出处同上。
[438] Stanley A.Plotkin,David Cornfeld,and Theodore H.Ingalls,“Studies of Immunization with Living Rubella Virus:Trials in Children of a Strain Cultured from an Aborted Fetus,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 110(1965):382.
[439] H.Koprowski,“Vaccines Against Rabies:Present and Future,”First International Conference on Vaccines Against Viral and Rickettsial Diseases of Man:Papers Presented and Discussions Held in Washington,D.C.,November 7—11,1966(Washington,DC:Pan American Health Organization Scientific Publication No.147,May 1967),488.
[440] Roger Vaughan,Listen to the Music:The Life of Hilary Koprowski(New York:Springer-Verlag,2000),67.
[441] Deborah J.Briggs,“Human Rabies Vaccines,”in Rabies,2nd ed.,ed.Alan C.Jackson and William H.Wunner(London:Academic Press,2007),506.
[442] World Health Organization,WHO Expert Consultation on Rabies:Second Report,WHO Technical Report Series,No.982(Geneva:World Health Organization 2013),8.
[443] W.Suraweera et al.,“Deaths from Symptomatically Identifiable Furious Rabies in India:A Nationally Representative Mortality Survey,”PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 6,no.10(2012):e1847;M.K.Sudarshan,“Assessing Burden of Rabies in India:WHO-Sponsored National Multi-Centric Rabies Survey,”Association for the Prevention and Control of Rabies in India Journal 6(May 2004):44—45.
[444] George M.Baer,ed.,The Natural History of Rabies,2nd ed.(Boca Raton,FL:CRC,1991):523.
[445] 出处同上，524。
[446] 出处同上。
[447] Elisabeth Emerson,Public Health Is People:A History of the Minnesota Department of Health from 1949 to 1999(St.Paul:Minnesota Department of Health,2002),35,and 61—62,www.health.state.mn.us/library/publichealthispeople19491999.html.
[448] Communicable Disease Center,“Annual Supplement:Summary 1965,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 14,no.53(1966):48.[449] U.S.Department of Health,Education and Welfare,National Office of Vital Statistics,“Annual Supplement:Reported Incidence of Notifiable Diseases in the United States,1952,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 1,no.54(1953):7.
[450] Louis Pasteur,“Méthode pour Prévenir la Rage Après Morsure,”Comptes Rendus de l’Academie des Sciences 101:765—74.For a concise English rendition of Pasteur's advance,see Hervé Bazin,“Pasteur and the Birth of Vaccines Made in the Laboratory,”in History of Vaccine Development,ed.Stanley A.Plotkin(New York:Springer Science + Business Media,2011),39—41.
[451] Madureira Pará,“An Outbreak of Post-vaccinal Rabies(Rage de Laboratoire) in Fortaleza,Brazil,in 1960:Residual Fixed Virus as the Etiological Agent,”Bulletin of the World Health Organization 33(1965):177—82,www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5294589.
[452] 出处同上，181。
[453] Franklin B.Peck Jr.,Horace M.Powell,and Clyde G.Culbertson,“Duck Embryo Rabies Vaccine:Study of Fixed Virus Vaccine Grown in Embryonated Duck Eggs and Killed with Beta-Propiolactone(BPL),”Journal of the American Medical Association 162,no.15(1956):1373;Hervé Bourhy,Annick Perrot,and Jean-Marc Cavaillon,“Rabies,”in:Andrew W.Artenstein,ed.,Vaccines:A Biography(New York:Springer Science + Business Media,2010),84.
[454] Franklin B.Peck Jr.,Horace M.Powell,and Clyde G.Culbertson,“New Antirabies Vaccine for Human Use,”Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine 45,no.5(1955):679—83.
[455] Peck,Powell,and Culbertson,“Duck Embryo Rabies Vaccine,”1373.
[456] Koprowski,“Vaccines Against Rabies,”489.
[457] Baer,Natural History of Rabies,418.
[458] Communicable Disease Center,“Annual Supplement:Summary 1965,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 14,no.53(1966):5.
[459] 出处同上，49。
[460] R.E.Kissling,“Growth of Rabies Virus in Non-nervous Tissue Culture,”Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 98,no.2(June 1958):223—25.
[461] Tadeusz J.Wiktor,Stanley A.Plotkin,and Hilary Koprowski,“Development and Clinical Trials of the New Human Rabies Vaccine of Tissue Culture(Human Diploid Cell) Origin,”Developments in Biological Standardization 40(1978):4.
[462] Vaughan,Listen to the Music,121.
[463] T.J.Wiktor,M.V.Fernandes,and H.Koprowski,“Cultivation of Rabies Virus in Human Diploid Cell Strain WI-38,”Journal of Immunology 93(September 1964):354—55.
[464] T.J.Wiktor,M.V.Fernandes,and H.Koprowski,“Potential Use of Human Diploid Cell Strains for Rabies Vaccine,”Proceedings:Symposium on the Characterization and Uses of Human Diploid Cell Strains:Opatija 1963(no location given:Permanent Section on Microbiological Standardization,International Association of Microbiological Societies,1963):354—56.
[465] John A.Anderson,Frank T.Daly Jr.,and Jack C.Kidd,“Human Rabies After Antiserum and Vaccine Postexposure Treatment:Case Report and Review,”Annals of Internal Medicine 64,no.6(1966):1297—1302.
[466] Basil Rice,“Rabies Threat Worsens,”Kingsport(TN) Times-News,May 9,1964,2.
[467] 出处同上。
[468] Richard R.Leger,“Alarm over Rabies:Disease Infects Wildlife in More Areas,Posing Threat to Vacationers;Rabid Foxes Terrorize County in Tennessee;Convicts May Test New Type of Vaccine;Skunks and Bats Are Carriers,”Wall Street Journal,May 19,1965,1.
[469] Communicable Disease Center,“Rabies in Animals and Man—1964:Annual Surveillance Summary,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 14,no.31(1965):266.
[470] Leger,“Alarm over Rabies.”
[471] 出处同上。
[472] 出处同上。
[473] Anderson,Daly,and Kidd,“Human Rabies After Antiserum,”1300—1301.
[474] Communicable Disease Center,“Human Rabies:Minnesota,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 13,no.38(1964):330;Gary Sprick obituary,Rochester(MN) Post-Bulletin,September 2,1964,https://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=114649224.
[475] Communicable Disease Center,“Rabies in Animals and Man,”269.
[476] Communicable Disease Center,“Epidemiologic Notes and Reports:Human Rabies Death—South Dakota,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 15,no.38(1966):3225—26.
[477] Leger,“Alarm over Rabies”;Centers for Disease Control,“Recommendation of the Immunization Practices Advisory Committee(ACIP):Rabies Prevention,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 29,no.3(1980):267.
[478] Communicable Disease Center,“Human Rabies Death:West Virginia,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 14,no.23(1965):195.
[479] Wiktor,Fernandes,and Koprowski,“Cultivation of Rabies Virus,”353—60.
[480] Wiktor,Plotkin,and Koprowski,“Development and Clinical Trials,”5.
[481] T.J.Wiktor and H.Koprowski,“Successful Immunization of Primates with Rabies Vaccine Prepared in Human Diploid Cell Strain WI-38,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 118(1965):1069—73.
[482] Mario V.Fernandes,Hilary Koprowski,and Tadeusz J.Wiktor,“Method of Producing Rabies Vaccine,”U.S.Patent 3,397,267,filed September 21,1964,and issued August 13,1968,http://www.google.com/patents/US3397267.
[483] 史克法公司产品采购与授权主管戴维·兰辛1966年5月3日致托马斯·W.诺顿的信，folder “SKF Correspondence 1968,”Stanley Plotkin private papers,Doylestown,PA。
[484] Claude Bernard,An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine,trans.Henry Copley Greene(New York:Dover,1957),101(首版于1865年出版).
[485] Stanley Plotkin,“Protocol for Rubella Study,”November 1,1963,folder “St.Vincent's,”Stanley Plotkin private papers,Doylestown,PA.罗莎·霍夫拉赫尔，2014年10月21日与作者的访谈；Jim Butler,“For Dependent Children,a ‘Home’ Is Not a Home,”Catholic Standard and Times(Philadelphia),January 19,1968,8。
[486] 玛丽·泰蕾兹·汉森，2014年10月24日与作者的电话访谈；霍夫拉赫尔，与作者的访谈；Butler,“For Dependent Children,”8。
[487] Ruth McClain,“St.Vincent's Hospital for Women and Children:Report of Inspection and Evaluation,”Department of Public Welfare of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania,April 1966,p.5,Cardinal Krol Papers,Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center.
[488] Butler,“For Dependent Children,”8.
[489] 霍夫拉赫尔，2014年10月21日与作者的访谈。
[490] 玛丽·泰蕾兹·汉森，2014年10月24日与作者的电话访谈。
[491] 斯坦利·普洛特金，2012年12月18日与作者的访谈。
[492] “Court's Abortion Rulings Termed ‘Tragic’ by Cardinal,Bishops,Pro-life Spokesmen,”Catholic Standard and Times(Philadelphia),January 25,1973,1.另见John Cardinal Krol,“Statement on Abortion:A Statement Issued by the President of the National Conference of Catholic Bishops,”January 22,1973,www.priestsforlife.org/magisterium/bishops/73-01-22statementonabortionnccb.htm(accessed February 1,2016)。
[493] Stanley A.Plotkin,David Cornfeld,and Theodore H.Ingalls,“Studies of Immunization with Living Rubella Virus:Trials in Children of a Strain Cultured from an Aborted Fetus,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 110(1965):382.
[494] 斯坦利·普洛特金1964年5月15日致泰珀博士（国家卫生研究院生物制品标准部）的信，folder “DBS,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[495] 罗德里克·默里（生物制品标准部主管）1964年5月21日致斯坦利·普洛特金的信，p.1,folder “DBS,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[496] 出处同上，p.2；“Continuously Cultured Tissue Cells and Viral Vaccines:Potential Advantages May Be Realized and Potential Hazards Obviated by Careful Planning and Monitoring:Report of a Committee on Tissue Culture Viruses and Vaccines,”Science 139(1963):15—20。
[497] 默里1964年5月21日致普洛特金的信。
[498] 斯坦利·普洛特金，2016年2月24日写给作者的电子邮件。
[499] 斯坦利·普洛特金，2015年5月25日与作者的访谈。
[500] 斯坦利·普洛特金1964年5月8日致西奥多·英戈尔斯的信，file folder“St.Vincent's,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[501] Y.Hiro and S.Tasaka,“Die röetheln sind eine Viruskrankheit,”Mschr Kinderheilk 76(1938):328—32.（该论文标题英译为“Rubella Is a Viral Disease”。）
[502] S.Krugman et al.,“Studies on Rubella Immunization I:Demonstration of Rubella Without Rash,”Journal of the American Medical Association 151,no.4(1953):285—88.
[503] John L.Sever et al.,“Rubella Virus,”Journal of the American Medical Association 162,no.6(1962):663—71.
[504] 斯坦利·普洛特金，2015年5月25日与作者的访谈。
[505] Plotkin,Cornfeld,and Ingalls,“Studies of Immunization,”382.
[506] 出处同上。
[507] 出处同上。
[508] 出处同上；斯坦利·普洛特金1964年10月6日致乔治·A.杰维斯的信,file folder “Correspondenceout,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[509] Plotkin,Cornfeld,and Ingalls,“Studies of Immunization,”383—84.
[510] 出处同上，387—88。
[511] 所有关于文茨勒一家的信息，以及他们的故事，都来自作者在2015年3月19日、3月23日、4月16日、4月18日和5月25日对玛丽·文茨勒与史蒂夫·文茨勒的面对面访谈和电话访谈，以及后续与他们的电子邮件。
[512] J.C.McDonald,“Gamma-Globulin for Prevention of Rubella in Pregnancy,”British Medical Journal 2,no.5354(1963):416.
[513] 出处同上，418。
[514] 玛丽·文茨勒，2015年3月23日与作者的访谈。
[515] Harold G.Scheie et al.,“Congenital Rubella Cataracts:Surgical Results and Virus Recovery from Intraocular Tissue,”Archives of Ophthalmology 77(1967):444.
[516] 约翰·F.奥尼尔，2015年6月1日与作者的访谈。
[517] John F.O'Neill,“The Ocular Manifestations of Congenital Infection:A Study of the Early Effect and Long-Term Outcome of Maternally Transmitted Rubella and Toxoplasmosis,”Transactions of the American Ophthalmological Society 96(1998):839,867.
[518] 出处同上，867。
[519] 约翰·F.奥尼尔，2015年6月1日与作者的访谈。
[520] O'Neill,“Ocular Manifestations,”834;Scheie et al.,“Congenital Rubella Cataracts,”442.
[521] Norman McAlister Gregg,“Congenital Cataract Following German Measles in the Mother,”Transactions of the Ophthalmological Society of Australia 3(1941):39.
[522] M.E.Oster,T.Riehle-Colarusso,and A.Correa,“An Update on Cardiovascular Malformations in Congenital Rubella Syndrome,”Birth Defects Research Part A:Clinical and Molecular Teratology 88,no.1(2010):1—8.
[523] S.Chess,P.Fernandez,and S.Korn,“Behavioral Consequences of Congenital Rubella,”Journal of Pediatrics 93,no.4(1978):699—703;William S.Webster,“Teratogen Update:Congenital Rubella,”Teratology 58(1998):20;Stella Chess,“Autism in Children with Congenital Rubella,”Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia 1,no.1(1971):33.
[524] C.J.Priebe Jr.,J.A.Holahan,and P.R.Ziring,“Abnormalities of the Vas Deferens and Epidiymis in Cryptorchid Boys with Congenital Rubella,”Journal of Pediatric Surgery 14,no.6(1979):834—38.
[525] Stanley A.Plotkin,“History of Rubella Vaccines and the Recent History of Cell Culture,”in Vaccinia,Vaccination and Vaccinology:Jenner,Pasteur and Their Successors,S.Plotkin and B.Fantini,eds.(Paris:Elsevier,1996),275.
[526] Eugene Buynak et al.,“Live Attenuated Rubella Virus Vaccines Prepared in Duck Embryo Cell Culture,”Journal of the American Medical Association 204,no.3(1968):196.
[527] David J.Rothman,Strangers at the Bedside:A History of How Law and Bioethics Transformed Medical Decision Making(New York:de Gruyter,1991,2003),64.
[528] Leslie J.Reagan,Dangerous Pregnancies:Mothers,Disabilities,and Abortion in Modern America(Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press,2010),63—64.
[529] 保罗·帕克曼，2015年4月7日与作者的访谈。
[530] 出处同上。
[531] 出处同上；Reagan,Dangerous Pregnancies,181。
[532] 帕克曼，与作者的访谈。
[533] Sarah Leavitt,“Dr.Paul Parkman Interview,”June 7,2005,p.20,Office of NIH Oral History Program,National Institutes of Health.
[534] Harry M.Meyer Jr.,Paul D.Parkman,and Theodore C.Panos,“Attenuated Rubella Virus II:Production of an Experimental Live-Virus Vaccine and Clinical Trial,”New England Journal of Medicine 275,no.11(1966):575.
[535] Leavitt,“Dr.Paul Parkman Interview,”19.
[536] Rothman,Strangers at the Bedside,56.
[537] Leavitt,“Dr.Paul Parkman Interview,”21—22.
[538] Meyer,Parkman,and Panos,“Attenuated Rubella Virus II,”575—80.
[539] 玛丽·泰蕾兹·汉森，2014年10月24日与作者的电话访谈。
[540] “New Patients Arrive Monday,”Hamburg Item,January 7,1960;“Local T-B Hospital Changed by Law to Child Welfare,”Hamburg Item,December 3,1959,p.1.
[541] 弗朗西斯·穆勒，2015年5月21日与作者的访谈。
[542] 贾斯珀·G.陈·西伊1967年2月1日致本杰明·克拉克的信，folder“Hamburg-I,”Stanley Plotkin private papers,Doylestown,PA。
[543] 贾斯珀·G.陈·西伊1967年10月30日致本杰明·克拉克的信,folder“Hamburg-I,”Stanley Plotkin private papers,Doylestown,PA。
[544] “Patients Move Around Like Robots:Retarded at Hamburg State School Are Kept Heavily Drugged According to Superintendent,”Observer-Reporter(Washington,PA),April 20,1973,p.A13.
[545] 斯坦利·普洛特金1968年3月25日致本杰明·克拉克的信,folder “Hamburg IX,”Stanley Plotkin private papers；弗朗西斯·穆勒2015年5月21日与作者的访谈。
[546] Stanley A.Plotkin et al.,“A New Attenuated Rubella Virus Grown In Human Fibroblasts:Evidence For Reduced Nasopharyngeal Excretion,”American Journal of Epidemiology 86(1967):469.
[547] Henry K.Beecher,“Ethics and Clinical Research,”New England Journal of Medicine 274,no.24(1966):1354—60,www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/NEJM196606162742405.
[548] 出处同上，1355。
[549] Rothman,Strangers at the Bedside,273.
[550] Captain Robert Chamovitz et al.,“Prevention of Rheumatic Fever by Treatment of Previous Streptococcal Infections I:Evaluation of Benzathine Penicillin G,”New England Journal of Medicine 251,no.12(1954):466—71.
[551] Saul Krugman et al.,“Infectious Hepatitis:Detection of Virus During the Incubation Period and in Clinically Inapparent Infection,”New England Journal of Medicine 261(1959):729—34.
[552] Elinor Langer,“Human Experimentation:Cancer Studies at Sloan-Kettering Stir Public Debate on Medical Ethics,”Science 143(1964):552.
[553] Rothman,Strangers at the Bedside,87—90.
[554] William H.Stewart,“Surgeon General's Directives on Human Experimentation,”PPO #129(Bethesda,MD:U.S.Public Health Service Division of Research Grants,revised July l,1966).
[555] Rothman,Strangers at the Bedside,38;罗斯博士1967年10月6日致泽尔尼克的备忘录,file folder “Vaccine Development Board,”Stanley Plotkin private papers,Doylestown,PA。
[556] 斯坦利·普洛特金1966年7月25日致本杰明·克拉克的信,folder“Hamburg-I,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[557] 本杰明·克拉克1966年7月27日致斯坦利·普洛特金的信,folder“Hamburg-I;”single sheet titled “1st group:8—1 to 9—13,”folder“Hamburg-I,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[558] 斯坦利·普洛特金2016年2月24日写给作者的电子邮件。
[559] 本杰明·克拉克1968年5月29日致斯坦利·普洛特金的信,folder“Hamburg-I,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[560] Stanley A.Plotkin et al.,“A New Attenuated Rubella Virus,”468—77.
[561] James L.Bittle et al.,“Results of Testing Production Lots of Oral Poliovirus Vaccine,”Journal of Infectious Diseases 116,no.2(1966):215—20.
[562] Plotkin et al.,“New Attenuated Rubella Virus,”473.
[563] Werner Slenczka and Hans Dieter Klenk,“Forty Years of Marburg Virus,”Journal of Infectious Diseases 196,supp.2(2007):S133.
[564] 出处同上。
[565] 出处同上，S131。
[566] 出处同上。
[567] 出处同上。
[568] K.Todorovitch,M.Mocitch,and R.Klašnja,“Clinical Picture of Two Patients Infected by the Marburg Vervet Virus,”in Marburg Virus Disease,Gustav Adolf Martini and Rudolf Siegert,eds.(Berlin and Heidelberg:Springer-Verlag,1971),19.
[569] G.A.Martini,“Marburg Virus Disease:Clinical Syndrome,”in Martini and Siegert,Marburg Virus Disease,1.
[570] 出处同上，2。
[571] 出处同上。
[572] P.Gedigk,H.Bechtelsheimer,and G.Korb,“Pathologic Anatomy of Marburg Virus Disease,”in Martini and Siegert,Marburg Virus Disease,50.
[573] Richard Preston,The Hot Zone(New York:Anchor Books,1994),38.
[574] Slenczka and Klenk,“Forty Years of Marburg Virus,”S131—32;Lawrence Corey,“Marburg Virus Disease,”in chapter 207,“Rabies and Other Rhabdoviruses,”in Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine Tenth Edition(New York:McGraw-Hill,1983),1139.
[575] C.E.Gordon Smith et al.,“Fatal Human Disease from Vervet Monkeys,”Lancet 290,no.7526(1967):1119.
[576] Richard Lyons,“Diseases Carried by Pets Increase,”New York Times,October 26,1967,p.24;U.S.Department of Health,Education and Welfare Public Health Service,National Cancer Institute Monograph December 29,1968,Cell Cultures for Virus Vaccine Production,474;Leonard Hayflick,“Human Virus Vaccines:Why Monkey Cells?,”Science 176(1972):813.
[577] Preston,Hot Zone,40—42.
[578] Slenczka and Klenk,“Forty Years of Marburg Virus,”S134.
[579] Conference on Cell Cultures for Virus Vaccine Production,474.
[580] 出处同上，474—75。
[581] Jacob Bronowski,“The Disestablishment of Science,”Encounter,July 1971,15.
[582] 五十年后，经过几次合并和收购，史克法公司成为今天的英国制药巨头葛兰素史克。
[583] “Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheets as of October 31,1967,”p.4,UPT 50 R252,box 68,file folder 12,Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Collection,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania.
[584] 斯坦利·普洛特金1966年12月5日致本杰明·克拉克的信，folder“Hamburg-I,”Stanley Plotkin private papers,Doylestown,PA。
[585] 厄尔·贝克（国家过敏与传染病研究所疫苗研发部科学家兼管理人员）1967年11月21日致斯坦利·普洛特金的信，folder “DBS,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[586] 丹尼尔·马拉利1967年致希拉里·科普罗夫斯基的信，folder “Vaccine Development Board,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[587] 罗伯特·J.费洛托（史克法公司微生物学研究部门主管）1967年12月1日致斯坦利·普洛特金的信，folder “SKF-Rubella,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[588] 普洛特金致克拉克的信。
[589] 本杰明·克拉克1966年11月13日致斯坦利·普洛特金的信,folder“Hamburg-I,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[590] 注册护士洛伊丝·科利（护士长）致克拉克博士（汉堡州立学校与医院负责人）的备忘录,“Dr.Plotkin's Letter of June 15,1967,Received Yesterday,”June 16,1967,folder “Rubella,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[591] 本杰明·克拉克1967年6月21日致斯坦利·普洛特金的信,folder“Hamburg-VI,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[592] 斯坦利·普洛特金1967年7月10日致洛伊丝·科利小姐的信,folder“Hamburg-VI,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[593] 伯纳德·弗兰克尔1968年致罗德里克·默里的信,folder “DBS,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[594] 斯坦利·普洛特金1968年1月10日致西奥多·英戈尔斯（马萨诸塞州弗雷明翰的流行病研究中心）的信,folder “DBS,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[595] 斯坦利·普洛特金1968年1月17日致罗伯特·德克特（德克特、普赖斯与罗兹律师事务所）的信,folder “DBS,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[596] Paul D.Parkman et al.,“Attenuated Rubella Virus I:Development and Laboratory Characterization,”New England Journal of Medicine 275,no.11(1966):569—74;Harry M.Meyer Jr.,Paul D.Parkman,and Theodore C.Panos,“Attenuated Rubella Virus II:Production of an Experimental Live-Virus Vaccine and Clinical Trial,”New England Journal of Medicine 275,no.11(1966):575—80.
[597] Harry M.Meyer Jr.et al.,“Clinical Studies with Experimental Live Rubella Virus Vaccine(Strain HPV-77):Evaluation of Vaccine-Induced Immunity,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 117(1968):648—54.
[598] “Drs.Meyer,Parkman Win Joint Recognition for Rubella Research,”NIH Record XIX,no.22(November 14,1967):3.
[599] George L.Stewart et al.,“Rubella-Virus Hemagglutination-Inhibition Test,”New England Journal of Medicine 276,no.10(1967):554—57;Sarah Leavitt,“Dr.Paul Parkman Interview,”June 7,2005,pp.26—28,Office of NIH History Oral History Program,National Institutes of Health.
[600] “Dr.Paul D.Parkman Named One of Ten Outstanding Young Men of the Year,”NIH Record XX,no.2(January 23,1968):1 and 7.
[601] 林登·约翰逊1966年5月5日致保罗·帕克曼的信,Name File P,file folder “Parkman,I—P,”box 56,White House Central File,LBJ Presidential Library,Austin,TX。
[602] Samuel J.Musser and Larry J.Hilsabeck,“Production of Rubella Virus Vaccine:Live,Attenuated,in Canine Renal Cell Cultures,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 118(1969):356—57,361.
[603] Paul Offit,Vaccinated:One Man’s Quest to Defeat the World's Deadliest Diseases(New York:HarperCollins,2007),76—78;Maurice Hilleman interview with Paul Offit,November 30,2004.音频文件由保罗·奥菲特提供。
[604] 希勒曼，与奥菲特的访谈。
[605] 出处同上。
[606] Maurice R.Hilleman et al.,“Live Attenuated Rubella Virus Vaccines:Experiences with Duck Embryo Cell Preparations,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 118,no.2(1969):166.
[607] Eugene Buynak et al.,“Live Attenuated Rubella Virus,Vaccines prepared in Duck Embryo Cell Culture,”Journal of the American Medical Association 204,no.3(1968):197(table 2).
[608] 希勒曼，2004年与奥菲特的访谈。
[609] Robert E.Weibel et al.,“Live Attenuated Rubella Virus Vaccines Prepared in Duck Embryo Cell Culture II:Clinical Tests in Families and in an Institution,”Journal of the American Medical Association 205,no.8(1969):558.
[610] 出处同上。
[611] 希勒曼，与奥菲特的访谈。
[612] 出处同上。
[613] John F.Morrison and William T.Keough,“Ex-Phila.Scientist Battles U.S.over Frozen Cells,”Philadelphia Evening Bulletin,April 4,1976.
[614] International Association of Microbiological Societies,Permanent Section of Microbiological Standardization,“Minutes of the Fifth Meeting of the Committee on Cell Cultures,”November 27,1968,21.
[615] J.P.Jacobs and F.T.Perkins,“Supplying Cell Cultures Regularly to Distant Laboratories,”Bulletin of the World Health Organization 40(1969):476—78.
[616] J.P.Jacobs,C.M.Jones,and J.P.Baille,“Characteristics of a Human Diploid Cell Designated MRC-5,”Nature 227(1970):168—70.
[617] Harold M.Schmeck Jr.,“Human Cells Given Role in Vaccines,”New York Times,November 12,1966,36.
[618] 这种新的腺病毒疫苗取代了使用猴肾细胞制备的疫苗。1955至1961年间，大约10万名美军士兵服用了猴肾细胞制备的疫苗；后来，人们发现它被潜藏的SV40广泛污染，便弃用了它。
[619] Jane Brody,“Cell Bank Is Suggested for Every Person at Birth,” New York Times,April 3,1967,25.
[620] “Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheet as of 4/30/66,” fourth page:“Percentage Report as of 4/30/66—Grants,”account number 60188,UPT 50 R252,box 68,folder 13 “Wistar Institute 1966”,Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania;“Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheets as of 10/31/67,”fourth page:“Percentage Report as of 10/31/67—Grants,”account number 188,UPT 50 R252,box 68,folder 12(“Wistar Institute 1966—67”),Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania.
[621] 阿尔伯特·萨宾1967年8月4日致西德尼·拉费尔的信,Correspondence,Individual(Graetz-Hayflick),series 1,box 11,folder“Hayflick,Leonard,1964—81,”Albert B.Sabin Collection,Henry R.Winkler Center for the History of the Health Professions,University of Cincinnati Libraries,Cincinnati,Ohio。
[622] 南希·普雷贝尔，2013年3月6日与作者的访谈。
[623] 威斯塔研究所董事会在1962年6月19日、1964年6月22日和1965年6月15日的会议纪要。这些会议纪要分别获取于威斯塔研究所一部会议纪要装订集的第193页、152页及213页。由宾夕法尼亚州费城威斯塔解剖学与生物学研究所提供。
[624] 威斯塔研究所董事会在1965年12月14日的会议纪要，获取于威斯塔研究所一部会议纪要装订集的第222页。由宾夕法尼亚州费城威斯塔解剖学与生物学研究所提供。
[625] “Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheets as of 10/31/67,”fourth page:“Percentage Report as of 10/31/67—Grants,”box 68,file folder 12(“Wistar Institute 1966—67”),Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers,UPT 50 R252,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania,“Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheet as of 4/30/66,”fourth page,Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers,UPT 50 R252,box 68,file folder 13(“Wistar Institute 1966”);“Wistar Institute Comparative Balance Sheet as of 12/31/65,”fourth page,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania,Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers,UPT 50 R252,box 68,file folder 14(“Wistar Institute 1966”).
[626] 《事实记录》，7。
[627] “Minutes of the Wistar Institute Board of Managers Meeting,”December 16,1966,p.1,UPT 50 R252,box 68,folder 12(“Wistar Institute 1966”),Isidor Schwaner Ravdin Papers,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania.
[628] 出处同上，exhibit A；“Minutes of the Wistar Institute Board of Managers Meeting,”February 24,1967,p.2,UPT 50 R252,box 68,folder 12(“Wistar Institute,1966—1967”),IsidorSchwaner Ravdin Papers,University Archives and Records Center,University of Pennsylvania。
[629] 《事实记录》，7。
[630] John D.Ross,“Memorandum on Diploid Contract Conference,Minutes of Meeting,”January 18,1968,《施赖弗报告》的附件B,p.1。
[631] 出处同上。
[632] 查尔斯·布恩1968年2月16日致科普罗夫斯基的信，《施赖弗报告》的附件C,2。
[633] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2013年3月3日与作者的访谈。
[634] Department of Health,Education,and Welfare,Public Health Service,National Institutes of Health,“Contract Number:PH43—62—157,”February 6,1962,Section 30:“Termination for the Convenience of the Government,”part(g),p.HEW-315-6.由伦纳德·海弗利克提供。
[635] “Chronicle Burroughs Wellcome Proposed Agreement,”folder “SKF Correspondence 1968,”Stanley Plotkin private papers,Doylestown,PA.
[636] 罗杰·C.埃格伯格（卫生和科学事务部助理部长）1970年8月13日致希拉里·科普罗夫斯基的信，Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[637] A.C.C.纽曼1968年10月16日致希拉里·科普罗夫斯基的信，file folder“Smith Kline French,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[638] 伦纳德·海弗利克，与作者的访谈。
[639] 《海弗利克对〈施赖弗报告〉的反驳》，19；约翰·香农1976年5月7日致利昂·雅各布斯的信，investigations 9,file folder 1,Directors' Files,Office of the Director,National Institutes of Health。
[640] 《施赖弗报告》，4。
[641] 埃米尔·鲁的话引自Stanley A.Plotkin,“Sang Froid in a Time of Trouble:Is a Vaccine Against HIV Possible?”Journal of the International AIDS Society 12,no.2(2009),http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2647531/doi:10.1186/1758-2652-12-2。
[642] Maurice R.Hilleman et al.,“Live Attenuated Rubella Virus Vaccines:Experiences with Duck Embryo Cell Preparations,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 118(1969):171.
[643] Samuel J.Musser and Larry J.Hilsabeck,“Production of Rubella Virus Vaccine:Live,Attenuated,in Canine Renal Cell Cultures,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 118(1969):361.
[644] George R.Thompson et al.,“Intermittent Arthritis Following Rubella Vaccination,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 125(1973):526.
[645] Stanley A.Plotkin et al.,“An Attenuated Rubella Virus Strain Adapted to Primary Rabbit Kidney,”American Journal of Epidemiology 88(1968):97.
[646] “Rubella:Vaccines May Be Licensed by Fall,”Science News 95(March 1,1969):209.
[647] 斯坦利·普洛特金1968年4月4日致阿加佩嬷嬷的信，folder“St.Vincent's,”Stanley Plotkin private papers,Doylestown,PA。
[648] 斯坦利·普洛特金1968年4月5日致约翰·约瑟夫·克罗尔（费城大主教）的信，folder “St.Vincent's,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[649] 费城大主教1968年4月11日致斯坦利·普洛特金的信，Cardinal Krol papers,Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center。
[650] S.A.Plotkin et al.,“Further Studies of an Attenuated Rubella Strain Grown in WI-38 Cells,”American Journal of Epidemiology 39,no.2(1969):236.
[651] 斯坦利·普洛特金，2015年6月1日与作者的访谈。
[652] Plotkin et al.,“Further Studies,”232.
[653] 出处同上，237。
[654] Stanley Plotkin,“Status of Negotiations with SKF,Merieux and Wellcome,”undated,file folder “SKF Correspondence 1968,”Plotkin private papers.This paper is physically placed among papers dated autumn 1968.
[655] 康斯坦特·于热朗1968年4月9日致罗伯特·费洛托的电报，folder “SKF Correspondence 1968,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[656] 阿兰·D.劳里1968年1月8日致埃德·克莱的备忘录，file folder “SKF-Rubella,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[657] Stanley A.Plotkin et al.,“A New Attenuated Rubella Virus Grown in Human Fibroblasts:Evidence for Reduced Nasopharyngeal Excretion,”American Journal of Epidemiology 86,no.2(1967):468—77.
[658] 罗伯特·费洛托1968年8月28日致斯坦利·普洛特金的信,folder “SKF Correspondence 1968,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[659] 罗伯特·费洛托1968年8月12日致希拉里·科普罗夫斯基的信，folder “SKF Correspondence 1968,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[660] R.Palmer Beasley et al.,“Prevention of Rubella During an Epidemic on Taiwan,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 118(1969):304.
[661] Harold M.Schmeck Jr.,“Test Finds Rubella Vaccine Effective,”New York Times,October 17,1968,1,27.
[662] “Tests on Vaccines to Prevent Rubella Highly Effective,”NIH Record 20,no.22(October 29,1968):1,8,https://nihrecord.nih.gov/PDF_Archive/1968%20PDFs/19681029.pdf (accessed February 8,2016).
[663] Beasley et al.,“Prevention of Rubella,”304.
[664] 罗德里克·默里和多兰·J.戴维斯1968年9月30日致斯坦利·普洛特金的信，folder “Washington,D.C.-1968,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[665] Plotkin et al.,“Attenuated Rubella Virus Strain,”97—102.
[666] Howard A.Rusk,“Rubella Vaccine Near:Likely to Be Available in 2 Months,After Production Guides Take Effect,”New York Times,April 13,1969.
[667] Stanley A.Plotkin et al.,“Attenuation of RA 27/3 Rubella Virus in WI-38 Human Diploid Cells,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 118(1969):184.
[668] 就孕妇接种疫苗的风险，在接下来的20年里，直到1989年，疾病控制中心将完整追踪研究305名在怀孕前后3个月无意中接种了疫苗的女性。这些女性产下的婴儿都未感染风疹。今天，疾病控制与预防中心建议，对孕期不慎接种了风疹疫苗的女性，医生应该告知她们，胎儿的感染风险最高为2.6%。疾病控制与预防中心还补充道，另有研究显示，在孕期或孕前不久接种过疫苗的易感女性产下的约1000名婴儿中，无一患先天性风疹。
[669] Hilleman et al.,“Live Attenuated Rubella Virus Vaccines,”167.
[670] R.E.Weibel et al.,“Live Rubella Vaccines in Adults and Children,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 118,no.2(1969):226—29.
[671] 出处同上。
[672] Louis Z.Cooper et al.,“Transient Arthritis After Rubella Vaccination,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 118,no.2(1969):218—25.
[673] Weibel et al.,“Live Rubella Vaccines,”229.
[674] “Recommendation of the Public Health Service Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices:Prelicensing Statement on Rubella Virus Vaccine,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 18,no.15(1969):124—25.
[675] “Leads from the MMWR:Rubella Vaccination During Pregnancy—United States,1971—1988,”Journal of the American Medical Association 261,no.23(1989):3375.
[676] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,“Control and Prevention of Rubella:Evaluation and Management of Suspected Outbreaks,Rubella in Pregnant Women,and Surveillance for Congenital Rubella Syndrome,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 50,no.RR—12(2001):16.
[677] 出处同上，33。
[678] J.E.Banatvala and D.W.G.Brown,“Seminar:Rubella,”Lancet 363(2004):1128.
[679] Plotkin et al.,“Attenuation of RA 27/3 Rubella Virus,”184.
[680] Roderick Murray,“Biologics Control of Virus Vaccines,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 118(1969):336.
[681] “Gamma Globulin Prophylaxis;Inactivated Rubella Virus;Production and Biologics Control of Live Attenuated Rubella Virus Vaccines:Discussion on Session V,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 118(1969):377.
[682] 出处同上，378。
[683] Roger Vaughan,Listen to the Music:The Life of Hilary Koprowski(New York:Springer-Verlag,2000),54.
[684] Edward Shorter,“The Health Century Oral History Collection,”Bernice Eddy interview,December 4,1986,p.25,transcript at the National Library of Medicine,NIH.
[685] “Gamma Globulin Prophylaxis,”378.
[686] 出处同上，379。
[687] 出处同上，379—80。
[688] Stanley A.Plotkin,ed.,History of Vaccine Development(New York:Springer Science + Business Media,2011),226.
[689] Robert Q.Marston,director,National Institutes of Health,“Additional Standards;Rubella Virus Vaccine,Live,”Federal Register 34,no.109(1969):9072—75.
[690] Louis Galambos with Jane Eliot Sewell,Networks of Innovation:Vaccine Development at Merck,Sharp & Dohme,and Mulford,1985—
1995(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1995),112.
[691] Stanley A.Plotkin,“Rubella Vaccination,”Journal of the American Medical Association 215,no.9(1971):1492—93.
[692] Thompson et al.,“Intermittent Arthritis,”526.
[693] William Schaffner et al.,“Polyneuropathy Following Rubella Immunization:A Follow-up Study and Review of the Problem,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 127(1974):684—88.
[694] General Accounting Office,“Bid Protest-Negotiation-Specification Compliance Denial of Protest Against Rejection of Offer for Furnishing Live Rubella Vaccine to Veterans Administration on Basis That Vaccine Did Not Comply with the Requirementsof the Amended Specifications,”B-170817,September 25,1970,www.gao.gov/products/429478#mt=e-report(accessed February 15,2016).
[695] Harold M.Schmeck Jr.,“One of 3 Rubella Vaccine Producers Barred from Bidding for US Contract,”New York Times,September 15,1970,13.
[696] 托马斯·诺顿1970年1月15日致希拉里·科普罗夫斯基的备忘录，folder“SKF-Rubella,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[697] 史克法公司1970年9月22日一次会议的备忘录，folder “SKF-Rubella,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[698] 斯坦利·普洛特金1970年10月2日致伦纳德·海弗利克的信，folder“Correspondence-H,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[699] Leonard Hayflick,“The Coming of Age of WI-38,”Advances in Cell Culture 3(1984):303.
[700] 罗伯特·鲁萨，2013年12月19日与作者的访谈。
[701] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2012年10月17日与作者的电话访谈。
[702] Roger Vaughan,Listen to the Music:The Life of Hilary Koprowski(New York:SpringerVerlag,2000),112.
[703] 斯坦利·普洛特金，2014年8月29日与作者的访谈。
[704] 斯坦利·普洛特金1968年7月9日致伦纳德·海弗利克的信，file folder“Correspondence-H,”Stanley Plotkin Rubella Papers。
[705] International Association of Microbiological Societies,Permanent Section of Microbiological Standardization,“Minutes of the Fourth Meeting of the Committee on Cell Cultures,”September 16,1967,p.63.
[706] 《事实记录》，7。
[707] 《施赖弗报告》，8—9。
[708] 出处同上，9。
[709] 《海弗利克对〈施赖弗报告〉的反驳》，40—41。
[710] International Association of Microbiological Societies,Permanent Section of Microbiological Standardization,“Minutes of the Fifth Meeting of the Committee on Cell Cultures,”November 27,1968,p.20；《施赖弗报告》，8。
[711] 《施赖弗报告》，8。
[712] 《事实记录》，20。
[713] 出处同上。
[714] 斯坦利·普洛特金1969年12月8日致伦纳德·海弗利克的信，file folder“Correspondence-H,”Stanley Plotkin private papers,Doylestown,PA。
[715] 《事实记录》，32—33。
[716] 斯坦利·普洛特金1969年3月17日致伦纳德·海弗利克的信，file folder“Correspondence-H,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[717] 斯坦利·普洛特金1969年8月1日致伦纳德·海弗利克的信，file folder“Correspondence-H,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[718] 伦纳德·海弗利克1969年8月11日致斯坦利·普洛特金的信，file folder“Correspondence-H,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[719] 伦纳德·海弗利克博士的证词，Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization and Government Research of the Committee on Government Operations,Consumer Safety Act of 1972:Hearings on Titles I and II of S.3419,92nd Cong.,2nd sess.,April 20 and 21 and May 3 and 4,1972,p.34。
[720] Debbie Bookchin and Jim Schumacher,The Virus and the Vaccine:Contaminated Vaccine,Deadly Cancers and Government Neglect(New York:St.Martin's,2004),127.
[721] Jane E.Brody,“Vaccine Produced in Human Cells,”New York Times,March 8,1972,18.
[722] Nicholas Wade,“Division of Biologics Standards:The Boat That Never Rocked,”Science 175(1972):1228.
[723] Abraham Ribicoff,“Exhibit 55:Vaccine Safety,”Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization and Government Research,Consumer Safety Act of 1972:Hearings,512—32.
[724] Nicholas Wade,“DBS:Agency Contravenes Its Own Regulations,” Science 175(1972):34.
[725] Ribicoff,“Exhibit 55:Vaccine Safety,”527.
[726] 伦纳德·海弗利克博士的证词，29—38。
[727] Wade,“DBS:Agency Contravenes,”35.
[728] Consumer Safety Act of 1972:Hearings,36.
[729] P.斯特塞尔1972年4月26日致莱德利实验室R.A.舍勒霍恩、H.珀尔马特、J.罗斯、小G.J.塞拉、R.J.瓦兰古、P.J.瓦辛顿的备忘录，引自Bookchin and Schumacher,Virus and the Vaccine,127,306。
[730] Leonard Hayflick,“Human Virus Vaccines:Why Monkey Cells?”Science 176(1972):813—14.
[731] 斯坦利·普洛特金致参议员亚伯拉罕·里比科夫的信，Consumer Safety Act of 1972:Hearings,419—20。
[732] “Dr.Roderick Murray Named Special Assistant to the Director of NIAID,”NIH Record,June 7,1972,5.
[733] Bookchin and Schumacher,Virus and the Vaccine,127.
[734] S.Kops,“Oral Polio Vaccine and Human Cancer:A Reassessment of SV40 as a Contaminant,Based upon Legal Documents,”Anticancer Research 20(2000):4746.
[735] Bookchin and Schumacher,Virus and the Vaccine,124.
[736] David Oshinksy,“Polio,”in:Andrew W.Artenstein,ed.,Vaccines:A Biography(New York:Springer Science + Business Media,2010),219.
[737] Nicoletta Previsani et al.,“World Health Organization Guidelines for Containment of Poliovirus Following Type-Specific Polio Eradication:Worldwide,2015,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 64,no.33(2015):913,https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6433a5.htm?s_cid=mm6433a5_w(accessed February 18,2016).
[738] World Health Organization Media Centre:“Government of Nigeria Reports 2 Wild Polio Cases,First Since July 2014:New Cases Come on the Two-Year Anniversary Since the Last Confirmed Case of Polio Was Reported in Africa”(news release),August 11,2016,http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2016/nigeria-polio/en/(accessed September 8,2016);Leslie Roberts,“Nigeria Outbreak Forces Rethink of Polio Strategies,”Science Insider(online),September 6,2016,http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/09/nigeria-outbreak-forces-rethink-polio-strategies(accessed September 8,2016).
[739] Rebecca Sheir,“Ebola Researcher Says Vaccinology Isn't Rocket Science—It's Harder,”Metro Connection,WAMU Radio,October 23,2014.Transcript available here:http://wamu.org/programs/metro_connection/14/10/23/ebola_researcher_says_vaccinology_isnt_rocket_science_its_harder_transcript(accessed September 1,2016).
[740] “Dr.Dorothy Horstmann dies—key in development of polio vaccine,”Yale Bulletin & Calendar 29,no.16(2001),http://www.yale.edu/opa/arc-ybc/v29.n16/story18.html ;David M.Oshinsky,“Breaking the Back of Polio,”Yale Medicine 40,no.1(2005),http://yalemedicine.yale.edu/autumn2005/features/feature/52012/; Daniel Wilson,unpublished interview with Dorothy Horstmann,1990,Dorothy M.Horstmann Papers(MS 1700),box 12,Folder 257,Manuscripts and Archives,Yale University Library.
[741] Jane E.Brody,“New Research on Rubella Challenges Effectiveness of Vaccination Program,”New York Times,September 29,1970,8.
[742] Dorothy M.Horstmann et al.,“Rubella:Reinfection of Vaccinated and Naturally Immune Persons Exposed in an Epidemic,”New England Journal of Medicine 283,no.15(1970):771—78.
[743] Scott B.Halstead et al.,“Susceptibility to Rubella Among Adolescents and Adults in Hawaii,”Journal of the American Medical Association 210(10):1881—83.
[744] Te-Wen Chang,Suzanne DesRosiers,and Louis Weinstein,“Clinical and Serological Studies of an Outbreak of Rubella in a Vaccinated Population,”New England Journal of Medicine 283,no.5(1970):246—48;J.M.Forrest,M.A.Menser,and M.C.Honeyman,“Clinical Rubella Eleven Months After Vaccination,”Lancet 300,no.7774(1972):399—400.
[745] Dorothy M.Horstmann et al.,“Rubella:Reinfection of Vaccinated and Naturally Immune Persons Exposed in an Epidemic,”New England Journal of Medicine 283,no.15(1970):771—78.
[746] 出处同上，775。
[747] Chang,DesRosiers,and Weinstein,“Clinical and Serological Studies of an Outbreak of Rubella in a Vaccinated Population,”New England Journal of Medicine 283,no.5(1970):246—48.
[748] Elias Abrutyn et al.,“Rubella Vaccine Comparative Study:Nine-Month Follow-Up and Serologic Response to Natural Challenge,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 120(1970):129—33;William J.Davis et al.,“A Study of Rubella Immunity and Resistance to Infection,”Journal of the American Medical Association 215,no.4(1971):600—608;Jeanette Wilkins et al.,“Reinfection with Rubella Virus Despite Live Vaccine-Induced Immunity,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 118:(1969):275—94;Harvey Liebhaber et al.,“Vaccination with RA27/3 Rubella Vaccine:Persistence of Immunity and Resistance to Challenge After Two Years,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 123(1972):134.
[749] Horstmann et al.,“Rubella:Reinfection,”777.
[750] 多萝西·霍斯特曼1970年1月30日致斯坦利·普洛特金的信。
[751] 斯坦利·普洛特金1970年11月30日和1971年4月16日致多萝西·霍斯特曼的信，folder “Horstmann,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[752] 多萝西·霍斯特曼1970年3月12日致斯坦利·普洛特金的信，file folder“Horstmann,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[753] Ann Schluederberg et al.,“Neutralizing and Hemagglutination-Inhibiting Antibodies to Rubella Virus as Indicators of Protective Immunity in Vaccinees and Naturally Immune Individuals,”Journal of Infectious Diseases 138,no.6(1978):877—83.
[754] Liebhaber et al.,“Vaccination with RA 27/3,”133—36.
[755] Chang,DesRosiers,and Weinstein,“Clinical and Serological Studies,”247;Wilkinset al.,“Reinfection with Rubella Virus,”291;Horstmann et al.,“Rubella:Reinfection,”775;Stanley A.Plotkin,John D.Farquhar,and Ogra L.Pearay,“Immunologic Properties of RA27/3 Rubella Virus Vaccine:A Comparison with Strains Presently Licensed in the United States,”Journal of the American Medical Association 225,no.6(1973):588.
[756] Liebhaber et al.,“Vaccination with RA 27/3,”134—35.
[757] 出处同上，136。
[758] 莫里斯·希勒曼，2004年11月30日接受保罗·奥菲特的采访。音频文件由保罗·奥菲特提供。
[759] Plotkin,Farquhar,and Pearay,“Immunologic Properties of RA 27/3,”585 and 589.
[760] 斯坦利·普洛特金1973年10月3日致伦纳德·海弗利克的信，file folder“Correspondence-H,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[761] 希勒曼，接受保罗·奥菲特的采访。
[762] Robert E.Weibel et al.,“Clinical and Laboratory Studies of Live Attenuated RA 27/3 and HPV 77-DE Rubella Virus Vaccines,”Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine 165,no.1(1980):44—49.
[763] 出处同上，44。
[764] Schluederberg et al.,“Neutralizing and Hemagglutination-Inhibiting Antibodies,”877—83.
[765] Pamela Eisele(Merck spokesperson),e-mail to the author,August 31,2015.
[766] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2012年10月3日与作者的访谈。
[767] Forrest Stevenson Jr.,“Women,the Bible and Abortion”(Brighton,MI:Forrest Stevenson,1972).由伦纳德·海弗利克提供。
[768] State of Michigan,Department of State,“Initiatives and Referendums Under the Constitution of the State of Michigan,1963,”December 5,2008,14.
[769] 詹姆斯·西恩纳1972年11月30日致福里斯特·史蒂文森的信。由伦纳德·海弗利克提供。
[770] 亚瑟·F.巴基1972年12月7日致詹姆斯·西恩纳的信。由伦纳德·海弗利克提供。
[771] 福里斯特·史蒂文森致海弗利克博士的信，见“Letters to the Editor,”Gazette Times(Heppner,OR),July 4,1974。
[772] 位于伦敦的医学研究委员会仍然拥有一部分原代WI—38细胞安瓿，其中的细胞只分裂过八九次。1962年秋，海弗利克给了医学研究委员会100支安瓿，后来又不时给他们寄去更多细胞。
[773] 伦纳德·海弗利克1973年致《生命线》（帕塞伊克县生命权组织内部通讯）的信。由伦纳德·海弗利克提供。
[774] United Press International,“Human Cells to Be Orbited in Outer Space,”Los Angeles Times,May 2,1973.
[775] 詹姆斯·安布罗斯1973年5月2日致约瑟夫·T.麦吉肯的信。由伦纳德·海弗利克提供。
[776] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2012年10月17日与作者的电话访谈。
[777] P.O.Montgomery et al.,“The Response of Single Human Cells to Zero Gravity,”in Richard S.Johnston and Lawrence F.Dietlein,Biomedical Results from Skylab,NASA SP-377(Washington,DC:Scientific and Technical Information Office,National Aeronautical and Space Administration,1977),221—33.
[778] 雷蒙德·萨默维尔太太1973年6月14日致伦纳德·海弗利克的信。
[779] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2012年10月16日与作者的电话访谈。
[780] 《海弗利克对〈施赖弗报告〉的反驳》，34。
[781] Department of Health,Education,and Welfare,Public Health Service,National Institutes of Health,“Contract Number:PH43-62-157,”February 6,1962,Section 30:“Termination for the Convenience of the Government,”part(g),p.HEW-315-6.由伦纳德·海弗利克提供。
[782] 《施赖弗报告》，附件B。
[783] 《施赖弗报告》，9。
[784] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2012年10月11日与作者的电话访谈。
[785] 《施赖弗报告》，9；John E.Shannon and Marvin L.Macy,eds.,The American Type Culture Collection Registry of Animal Cell Lines,2nd ed.(Rockville,MD:American Type Culture Collection,1972),17;Robert Hay et al.,eds.,The American Type Culture Collection:Catalogue of Strains II,2nd ed.(Rockville,MD:American Type Culture Collection,1979),viii。
[786] 《施赖弗报告》，10。
[787] Louis Rosenfeld,“Insulin:Discovery and Controversy,”Clinical Chemistry 48,no.12(2002):2280.
[788] Jonas Salk,interview with Edward R.Murrow on See It Now,CBS,April 12,1955.引自 Elizabeth Popp Berman,Creating the Market University:How Academic Science Became an Economic Engine(Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,2012),5；以及引自Jane S.Smith,Patenting the Sun:Polio and the Salk Vaccine(New York:Morrow,1990),13。
[789] Frederick J.Hammett,“Uncommitted Researchers,”Science 117(1953):64.
[790] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2012年10月17日与作者的电话访谈。
[791] 《施赖弗报告》，9。
[792] 出处同上，11；《施赖弗对海弗利克反驳声明的反驳》，106。
[793] 《施赖弗报告》，附件A。
[794] 出处同上，12。
[795] 出处同上，6—7。
[796] 出处同上；《施赖弗对海弗利克反驳声明的反驳》，58—59。
[797] 《施赖弗报告》，12；《施赖弗对海弗利克反驳声明的反驳》，106。
[798] 《事实记录》，38—39。
[799] 出处同上，38。
[800] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2013年3月4日与作者的访谈。
[801] 《施赖弗报告》，12。
[802] 《海弗利克对〈施赖弗报告〉的反驳》，14。
[803] Stanley N.Cohen et al.,“Construction of Biologically Functional Bacterial Plasmids in Vitro,”Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 70,no.11(1973):3240—44.
[804] Niels Reimers,“Stanford's Office of Technology Licensing and the Cohen/Boyer Cloning Patents,”oral history conducted in 1997 by Sally Smith Hughes,p.3,Regional Oral History Office,Bancroft Library,University of California at Berkeley,1998.
[805] Sally Smith Hughes,“Making Dollars Out of DNA:The First Major Patent in Biotechnology and the Commercialization of Molecular Biology,1974—1980,”Isis 92(2001):549;Berman,Creating the Market University,64.
[806] Rajendra K.Bera,“Commentary:The Story of the Cohen-Boyer Patents,”Current Science 96,no.6(2009):760.
[807] Herbert W.Boyer,“Recombinant DNA Research at UCSF and Commercial Application at Genentech,”oral history conducted in 1994 by Sally Smith Hughes,p.98,Regional Oral History Office,Bancroft Library,University of California at Berkeley,www.oac.cdlib.org/view?docId=kt5d5nb0zs&brand=oac4&doc.view=entire_text(accessed February 26,2016).同样引自Berman,Creating the Market University,66。
[808] Stephen S.Hall,Merchants of Immortality:Chasing the Dream of Human Life Extension(Boston,New York:Houghton Mifflin Company,2003),37.
[809] 罗纳德·拉蒙-哈弗斯1974年10月10日致伦纳德·海弗利克的信。由伦纳德·海弗利克提供。
[810] 《海弗利克对〈施赖弗报告〉的反驳》，3—4；Leonard Hayflick,“Hayflick's Reply,”Science 202(1978):129。
[811] 《施赖弗对海弗利克反驳声明的反驳》，4—6。
[812] 出处同上，6—7；《施赖弗报告》，1；《事实记录》，21。
[813] 唐纳德·墨菲1975年1月31日致伦纳德·海弗利克的信。由伦纳德·海弗利克提供。
[814] 《事实记录》，21。
[815] 《施赖弗对海弗利克反驳声明的反驳》，6—7。
[816] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2012年10月16日与作者的电话访谈。
[817] 《施赖弗对海弗利克反驳声明的反驳》，6。
[818] “James Schriver Named Head of Newly Created OAM Audit Branch,”NIH Record 25,no.3(February 12,1963):5;“James Schriver Retires After 17 Years at NIH,”NIH Record 32,no.7(April 1,1980):4.
[819] “James Schriver Named Head,”5.
[820] Nicholas Wade,“Division of Biologics Standards:Scientific Management Questioned,”Science 175(1972):966.
[821] Philip M.Boffey,“The Fall and Rise of Leonard Hayflick,Biologist Whose Fight with US Seems Over,”New York Times,January 19,1982.
[822] 理查德·杜加斯，2013年4月27日与作者的电话访谈。
[823] 尼古拉斯·韦德，2013年4月30日与作者的电话访谈。
[824] 南希·普雷贝尔的所有个人回忆都来自作者与她在2013年3月6日和7日的访谈。
[825] 理查德·杜加斯，2015年7月25日与作者的电话访谈。
[826] 《事实记录》，25,28—29；《施赖弗报告》，5。
[827] 南希·普雷贝尔，2013年3月6日与作者的访谈。
[828] Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology and Connaught Laboratories,License Agreement,January 1,1973,folder “Connaught Correspondence,”Stanley Plotkin private papers,Doylestown,PA.
[829] 《施赖弗报告》，7。
[830] 出处同上。
[831] 《事实记录》，26—27。
[832] 出处同上，26。
[833] 出处同上，27。
[834] 出处同上，28。
[835] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2012年10月16日与作者的电话访谈。
[836] 《事实记录》，38。
[837] Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization and Government Research of the Committee on Government Operations,Consumer Safety Act of 1972:Hearings on Titles I and II of S.3419,92nd Cong.,2nd sess.,April 20 and 21 and May 3 and 4,1972,p.35.
[838] 《事实记录》，38—39。
[839] 出处同上。
[840] 利昂·雅各布斯的存档备忘录，“Re:Telephone Conversation with Mr.Don Brooks(Attorney),Merck and Company,”March 31,1976,investigations 9,file folder 1,Directors' Files,Office of the Director,National Institutes of Health。
[841] M.F.Miller(Merck) “Memo for File:WI-38 Human Diploid Cells,” July 11,1974.由伦纳德·海弗利克提供。
[842] 《赖斯伯格备忘录》，3。
[843] 出处同上。
[844] 理查德·索恩伯勒1975年8月6日致理查德·J.赖斯伯格的信，investigations 9,file folder 1,Directors' Files,Office of the Director,National Institutes of Health。
[845] 《事实记录》，33。
[846] 唐纳德·墨菲的存档备忘录，“PHS Working Group on WI-38,”July 21 and 25,1975,investigations 9,folder 1,Directors' Files,Office of the Director,National Institutes of Health。
[847] 詹姆斯·香农1975年10月9日致R.唐维克的备忘录，“Reference:Inventory of WI-38 Cells Delivered by NIH”。由弗吉尼亚州马纳萨斯市美国典型培养物保藏中心的弗兰克·西苗内提供。
[848] Nicholas Wade,“Hayflick's Tragedy:The Rise and Fall of a Human Cell Line,”Science 192,no.4235(1976):125.
[849] Harold M.Schmeck Jr.,“Investigator Says Scientist Sold Cell Specimens Owned by U.S.,”New York Times,March 28,1976,1,26.
[850] 《施赖弗报告》，1—14 及附件A至C。
[851] 《事实记录》，51。
[852] 《海弗利克对〈施赖弗报告〉的反驳》，41,45。
[853] 出处同上，53；Nicholas Wade,“Vaccine Cells Found Mostly Contaminated,”Science 194,no.4260(1976):41。
[854] Wade,“Vaccine Cells Found Mostly Contaminated,”41.
[855] Leonard Hayflick,“Hayflick's Reply,”Science 202(1978):131.
[856] Leonard Hayflick,“Press Statement,”Plotkin Rubella Papers,folder “Correspondence-H,”Stanley Plotkin private papers.
[857] Wade,“Hayflick's Tragedy,”125—27.
[858] 尼古拉斯·韦德，2013年4月30日与作者的电话访谈。
[859] Schmeck,“Investigator Says Scientist Sold,”26.
[860] 《施赖弗报告》，4；《事实记录》，13。
[861] 《事实记录》，34。
[862] Wade,“Hayflick's Tragedy,”127.
[863] Pan Demetrakakes,“Prof in Alleged Fund Misuse,”Stanford Daily 169,no.22(March 3,1976).
[864] 《事实记录》，43。
[865] 出处同上。
[866] Clayton Rich,“Dean Rich Speaks on Hayflick Case,”Stanford University Campus Report 8,no.40(July 21,1976),investigations 9,file folder 1,Directors' Files,Office of the Director,National Institutes of Health.
[867] 威廉·芬威克，2012年10月6日与作者的访谈。
[868] Zhores A.Medvedev,“Letter:Hayflick's Tragedy,”Science 192(1976):1182—84.
[869] 希勒曼的话引自：Stephen S.Hall,Merchants of Immortality:Chasing the Dream of Human Life Extension(Boston,New York:Houghton Mifflin Company,2003),39。
[870] 阿尔伯特·萨宾1981年12月1日致伯纳德·施特雷勒的信，1981,box 11,file folder “Correspondence,Individual,Hayflick,Leonard,1964—81,”Correspondence-Individual(Graetz-Hayflick) series 1,Albert B.Sabin Collection,Henry R.Winkler Center for the History of the Health Professions,University of Cincinnati Libraries。
[871] 芬威克，与作者的访谈。
[872] Cell Associates,Inc.and Leonard Hayflick v.National Institute［sic］ of Health;Department of Health,Education and Welfare;and Donald Fredrickson,Director of National Institute ［sic］ of Health(U.S.District Court for the Northern District of California,C76601 RHS),March 25,1976,p.7,investigations 9,file folder 4,Directors' Files,Office of the Director,National Institutes of Health.
[873] 赫伯特·J.克赖特曼1976年9月30日致伦纳德·海弗利克的信，investigations 9,folder 2,Directors' Files,Office of the Director,NIH;理查德·J.赖斯伯格致弗雷德里克森博士与施赖弗先生的备忘录,“Subject:Cell Associates,Inc.v.NIH,”November 2,1978,investigations 9,folder 3,Directors' Files,Office of the Director,NIH;Nicholas Wade,“Despite the Length of Hayflick's Letter,”Science 202(1978):136。
[874] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2013年3月3日与作者的访谈。
[875] 斯坦利·普洛特金1976年5月27日致伦纳德·海弗利克的信，file folder“Correspondence-H,”Stanley Plotkin private papers。
[876] 《海弗利克对〈施赖弗报告〉的反驳》，1—65。
[877] 《施赖弗对海弗利克反驳声明的反驳》，1—121。
[878] Wade,“Vaccine Cells Found Mostly Contaminated,”41.
[879] 《施赖弗报告》，1。
[880] Cell Associates v.National Institute ［sic］ of Health,7.
[881] “Human Cancer Cell Reconstruction and Transformation,”1 R01 CA18456-01,from 01/01/76 through 12/31/80,investigations 9,file folder 1,Directors' Files,Office of the Director,National Institutes of Health；唐纳德·墨菲1976年7月30日致伦纳德·海弗利克的信， Office of the Director,NIH,Directors' Files,investigations 9,folder 3。
[882] 彼得·利巴西，1978年4月23日致托马斯·D.莫里斯和唐纳德·弗雷德里克森的信，p.2,Office of the Director,NIH,Directors' Files,investigations 9,folder 2。
[883] Richard J.Riseberg,“Chronology,”4,attachment to Riseberg letter to Donald Fredrickson,January 6,1978,Office of the Director,NIH,Directors' Files,investigations 9,folder 2.
[884] 伦纳德·海弗利克1978年11月8日致唐纳德·弗雷德里克森的信。由伦纳德·海弗利克提供。
[885] 理查德·J.赖斯伯格致罗伯特·巴特勒的备忘录，“Subject:Application for Research Grant—Dr.Hayflick,”1—2,August 24,1977,Office of the Director,NIH,Directors' Files,investigations 9,folder 2。全句内容是：“因此，我的观点是，没有可靠的法律依据可以剥夺海弗利克博士担任国家卫生研究院任何资助项目主要研究人员的资格。”
[886] 贝蒂·H.皮克特，1977年7月27日致唐纳德·墨菲的备忘录。由伦纳德·海弗利克提供。
[887] 出处同上；Office of the Director,NIH,Directors' Files,investigations 9,folder 2。
[888] Leon Jacobs,“Memorandum,Subject:Hayflick,”December 8,1977,Office of the Director,NIH,Directors' Files,investigations 9,folder 3.
[889] 托马斯·D.莫里斯（监察长）写在海弗利克文档中的备忘录，“Subject:Meeting of January 9,1978,”Office of the Director,NIH,Directors' Files,investigations 9,folder 2。
[890] 托马斯·D.莫里斯1978年4月11日写在海弗利克文档中的备忘录。由伦纳德·海弗利克提供。
[891] 玛丽·迈尔斯1981年写给马龙博士的便条，investigations 9,folder 2,Directors' Files,Office of the Director,National Institutes of Health。
[892] 理查德·J.赖斯伯格致国家卫生研究院院长特别助理的备忘录，“Proposed Basis of Settlement in the Cell Associates Case,”November 9,1979,investigations 9,folder 2,Directors' Files,Office of the Director,National Institutes of Health。
[893] Marcel Baltazard and Mehdi Ghodssi,“Prevention of Human Rabies:Treatment of Persons Bitten by Rabid Wolves in Iran,”Bulletin of the World Health Organization 10,no.5(1954):798.
[894] Mahmoud Bahmanyar et al.,“Successful Protection of Humans Exposed to Rabies Infection:Postexposure Treatment with the New Human Diploid Cell Rabies Vaccine and Antirabies Serum,”Journal of the American Medical Association 236,no.24(1976):2751—54.
[895] T.J.Wiktor,S.A.Plotkin,and H.Koprowski,“Development and Clinical Trials of the New Human Rabies Vaccine of Tissue Culture(Human Diploid Cell) Origin,”Developments in Biological Standardization 40(1978):3—9.
[896] T.J.Wiktor et al.,“Immunogenicity of Concentrated and Purified Rabies Vaccine of Tissue Culture Origin,”Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 131(1969):799—805.
[897] H.Koprowski,“In Vitro Production of Antirabies Virus Vaccine,”in International Symposium on Rabies,Talloires 1965,Symposium Series on Immunobiological Standards,vol.1(Basel and New York:Karger,1966),363—64.
[898] Centers for Disease Control,Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 34,nos.2,5,and 7(1985),reprinted in Journal of the American Medical Association(March 15,1985):1540.
[899] 出处同上；Wiktor,Plotkin,and Koprowski,“Development and Clinical Trials,”4。
[900] Mario V.Fernandes,Hilary Koprowski,and Tadeusz J.Wiktor,“Method of Producing Rabies Vaccine,”U.S.Patent 3,397,267,filed September 21,1964,and issued August 13,1968,https://patents.google.com/patent/US3397267.
[901] Wiktor,Plotkin,and Koprowski,“Development and Clinical Trials,”5;Tadeusz J.Wiktor,Stanley A.Plotkin,and Doris W.Grella,“Human Cell Culture Rabies Vaccine:Antibody Response in Man,”Journal of the American Medical Association 224,no.8(1973):1170—71.
[902] 与麻疹不同，腮腺炎致命的可能性极低，但是对于部分儿童，它会造成永久性失聪或脑炎。对于青春期后的男孩和成年的男性，腮腺炎会引发令人难以忍受的睾丸炎，也罕见永久性不育。
[903] Wiktor,Plotkin,and Grella,“Human Cell Culture Rabies Vaccine,”1170—71.
[904] Wiktor,Plotkin,and Koprowski,“Development and Clinical Trials,”5,7.
[905] Bahmanyar et al.,“Successful Protection of Humans,”2754.
[906] 出处同上。
[907] 出处同上。
[908] Centers for Disease Control,“Recommendation of the Immunization Practices Advisory Committee(ACIP):Rabies Prevention,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 29,no.3(1980):266.
[909] Centers for Disease Control,“Rabies Postexposure Prophylaxis with Human Diploid Cell Rabies Vaccine:Lower Neutralizing Antibody Titers with Wyeth Vaccine,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 34,no.7(1985):90—92.
[910] 出处同上，90—91。
[911] United Press International,“Wyeth Laboratories Tuesday Recalled Its Wyvac Rabies Vaccine,”February 19,1985,http://www.upi.com/Archives/1985/02/19/Wyeth-Laboratories-Tuesday-recalled-its-Wyvac-rabies-vaccine-effective/5202477637200/.
[912] Jeffrey P.Koplan and Stephen R.Preblud,“A Benefit-Cost Analysis of Mumps Vaccine,”American Journal of Diseases of Children 136(1982):362;Kenneth B.Robbins,A.David Brandling-Bennett,and Alan R.Hinman,“Low Measles Incidence:Association with Enforcement of School Immunization Laws,”American Journal of Public Health 71,no.3(1981):270.
[913] Michiaki Takahashi et al.,“Live Vaccine Used to Prevent the Spread of Varicella in Children in Hospital,”Lancet 2,no.7892(1974):1288—90.
[914] Michiaki Takahashi et al.,“Development of Varicella Vaccine,”Journal of Infectious Diseases 197(2008):S41—44.另见 Robert E.Weibel et al.,“Live Attenuated Varicella Virus:Efficacy Trial in Healthy Children,”New England Journal of Medicine 310,no.22(1984):1409。
[915] Beverly J.Neff et al.,“Clinical and Laboratory Studies of KMcC Strain Live Attenuated Varicella Virus,”Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 166,no.3(1981):339—47.
[916] 阿兰·肖，2014年3月16日与作者的访谈；Louis Galambos with Jane Eliot Sewell,Networks of Innovation:Vaccine Development at Merck,Sharp & Dohme,and Mulford,1985—1995(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1995),231—32。
[917] Neff et al.,“Clinical and Laboratory Studies,”344.
[918] Nicholas Wade,“Hayflick's Tragedy:The Rise and Fall of a Human Cell Line,”Science 194,no.4235(1976):125.
[919] 菲利普·普罗沃斯特，2012年12月18日与作者的访谈。
[920] Weibel et al.,“Live Attenuated Varicella Virus,”1409.
[921] Wade,“Hayflick's Tragedy,”127.
[922] E.L.Buescher,“Respiratory Disease and the Adenoviruses,”Medical Clinics of North America 51(1967):773—74.
[923] Centers for Disease Control,Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report:Recommendations and Reports 39,no.RR-15(1990):1—18.
[924] “1 Mil.Merck-Hayflick Contract for WI-38 Cells Revealed by NIH:Researcher Denies Wrongdoing,Sues Govt.for Defaming Character,”Blue Sheet:Drug Research Reports 19,no.13(March 31,1976):3,investigations 9(Human Diploid Cells Under Gvt.Ownership),file folder 1(Jan—August 1976),Historical Files,Office of the Director,National Institutes of Health.
[925] U.S.Food and Drug Administration,“WI-38 Cells Pre-tested for Vaccine Manufacture(ATCC 7/19/96),”response to Freedom of Information Act Request from Leonard Hayflick,August 26,1996.由伦纳德·海弗利克提供。
[926] John E.Shannon and Marvin Macy,eds.,The American Type Culture Collection Registry of Animal Cell Lines,2nd ed.(Rockville,MD:American Type Culture Collection,1972),17.
[927] William Rutter,“The Department of Biochemistry and the Molecular Approach to Biomedicine at the University of California,San Francisco,”oral history conducted in 1992 by Sally Smith Hughes,p.58,Regional Oral History Office,Bancroft Library,University of California at Berkeley,1998.
[928] 1983年，罗纳德·里根总统颁布行政命令使《贝赫-多尔法案》也覆盖了大企业。行政命令可以被后来的任何一位总统取消，所以并不像由国会通过、由总统签署生效的法案那样不可改变。1986年，新法律《联邦技术转移法》让与政府运营的实验室签订了特殊合同的大企业能够获得专利权。
[929] 伦纳德·海弗利克，2013年3月5日与作者的访谈。
[930] Ronald E.Cape,oral history conducted in 2003 by Sally Smith Hughes,Regional Oral History Office,Bancroft Library,University of California at Berkeley,http://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/roho/ucb/text/cape_ron.pdf.
[931] Robert Beyers,“Free Inquiry Must Be Rule in Research,”Campus Report 13,no.7(1980):1,18.Found in Sally Smith Hughes,“Making Dollars Out of DNA:The First Major Patent in Biotechnology and the Commercialization of Molecular Biology,1974—1980,”Isis 92(2001):p.573.
[932] Brook Byers,“Brook Byers:Biotechnology Venture Capitalist,1970—2006,”oral history conducted by Thomas D.Kiley,2002—5,Regional Oral History Office,Bancroft Library,University of California,p.19,http://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/roho/ucb/text/byers_brook.pdf.
[933] Wendy H.Schacht,“The Bayh-Dole Act:Selected Issues in Patent Policy and the Commercialization of Technology,”Congressional Research Service,December 3,2012,p.2,https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL32076.pdf.
[934] Elizabeth Popp Berman,Creating the Market University:How Academic Science Became an Economic Engine(Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,2012),106.
[935] 通常，独家授权才能吸引商业投资人。但是，科恩和博耶的专利应用范围很广，并且这些专利支持的技术十分重要，需求很大，所以斯坦福大学的专利大师尼尔斯·赖默斯——他代表斯坦福大学和加利福尼亚大学成功申请了专利——拒绝了基因泰克公司获得独家授权的要求。
[936] 出处同上，105。对历史细节感兴趣的读者可以阅读伊丽莎白·波普·博曼的杰作《创建市场大学》。
[937] 出处同上，107—8。
[938] Patent and Trademark Law Amendments Act,Public Law 96-517,U.S.Statutes at Large 94(1980):3015.
[939] Berman,Creating the Market University,108.
[940] Diamond v.Chakrabarty,447 U.S.303(1980),https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/447/303/case.html.
[941] 出处同上，309。
[942] 2015年的数据由华盛顿特区的生物技术创新组织提供。
[943] 想详细了解这些多种影响因素的读者，应该阅读伊丽莎白·波普·博曼在《创建市场大学》第69至79页的叙述。
[944] Berman,Creating the Market University,83.
[945] Hughes,“Making Dollars Out of DNA,”569.
[946] Maryann Feldman,Alessandra Colaianni,and Kang Liu,“Commercializing Cohen-Boyer,1980—1997,”Druid(Toronto:University of Toronto Rotman School of Management,2005),1.
[947] 弗洛伊德·格罗勒（曾经负责科恩和博耶那几项专利的授权官员）2006年
8月29日致萨莉·史密斯·休斯的私人信息，引自Hughes,“Making Dollars Out of DNA,”570。
[948] 迈克尔·克里尔（哥伦比亚大学科学技术投资办公室前执行理事）致理查德·R.纳尔逊（哥伦比亚大学国际政治经济亨利·R.卢斯教授）和巴文·桑帕特（哥伦比亚大学梅尔曼公共卫生学院卫生政策与管理副教授）的私人信息，引自Alessandra Colaianni and Robert Cook-Deegan,“Columbia University's Axel Patents:Technology Transfer and Implications for the Bayh-Dole Act,”Milibank Quarterly 87,no.3(2009):700,711。
[949] National Science Board,Science and Engineering Indicators:1993(Washington,DC:National Science Foundation,1993),430;Association of University Technology Managers,FY 2014 US Licensing Activity Survey(Oakbrook Terrace,IL:Association of University Technology Managers,2014),23.
[950] National Science Board,Science and Engineering Indicators:2014(Arlington,VA:National Science Foundation 2014):5—54.
[951] David Blumenthal et al.,“University-Industry Research Relationships in Biotechnology:Implications for the University,”Science 232,no.4756(1986):1364.
[952] 文森特·特尔勒普1980年2月22日致托马斯·马龙的信，Directors' Files,NIH,Office of the Director,investigations 9,folder 2。
[953] 理查德·J.赖斯伯格1989年7月24日写给劳布的便条，investigations 9(Human Diploid Cells Under Gvt.Ownership),file folder 2(September 1976—
July 1989),Historical Files,Office of the Director,National Institutes of Health。这张便条的部分内容是：“（海弗利克）并不知道，政府选择和解的主要考量与功过无关，只与吉姆·施赖弗的退休，以及返聘他的费用太高有关。”赖斯伯格在便条中与当时国家卫生研究院的执行院长威廉·劳布讨论这件事，是因为海弗利克将他新写成的一篇论文寄给了劳布，让劳布很恼火。海弗利克在这篇论文中单方面叙述了他与国家卫生研究院的冲突，描述了部分生物学家是如何从过去十年的法律和政策变化中获利的。这篇论文是《将窃得的人细胞转为可接受联邦政策的新方法》。
[954] Leonard Hayflick,Edmond C.Gregorian,Michael Hughes,and Vincent B.Terlep,“Settlement Agreement,”September 15,1981,1—8,investigations 9,folder 1,Directors' Files,Office of the Director,National Institutes of Health.
[955] 出处同上，2。
[956] Bernard L.Strehler et al.,“Hayflick-NIH Settlement,”Science 215(1982):240,242.
[957] Leonard Hayflick,“Hayflick's Reply,”Science 202(1978):128—36.
[958] Leonard Hayflick and Paul S.Moorhead,“The Serial Cultivation of Human Diploid Cell Strains,”Experimental Cell Research 25,no.3(1961):585—621.
[959] Leonard Hayflick,“The Limited in Vitro Lifetime of Human Diploid Cell Strains,”Experimental Cell Research 37(1965):634.
[960] 赖特会继续提出，正常细胞停止分裂是为了阻止肿瘤的形成。肿瘤细胞要经过许多突变才会恶化，而正常细胞如果停止分裂，就不会积累这些突变。
[961] P.L.Krohn,“Aging,”Science 152(1966):392.
[962] 出处同上；Sir Macfarlane Burnet,Intrinsic Mutagenesis:A Genetic Approach to Ageing(Lancaster,UK:Medical and Technical,1974):62;L.M.Franks,“Cellular Aspects of Aging,”Experimental Gerontology 5(1970):281—89;R.L.Walford,The Immunologic Theory of Aging(Copenhagen:Munksgaard,1969)。
[963] Burnet,Intrinsic Mutagenesis,62.
[964] Hayflick,“The Limited in Vitro Lifetime,”625.
[965] 出处同上。
[966] G.M.Martin,C.A.Sprague,and C.J.Epstein,“Replicative Life-span of Cultivated Human Cells:Effects of Donor's Age,Tissue,and Genotype,”Laboratory Investigation:A Journal of Technical Methods and Pathology 23,no.1(1970):86—92;Y.Le Guilly et al.,“Long-term Culture of Human Adult Liver Cells:Morphological Changes Related to in Vitro Senescence and Effect of Donor's Age on Growth Potential,”Gerontologia 19,no.5(1973):303—13;E.L.Bierman,“The Effect of Donor Age on the in Vitro Life Span of Cultured Human Arterial Smooth-Muscle Cells,”In Vitro 14,no.11(1978):951—55.
[967] J.R.Smith and R.G.Whitney,“Intraclonal Variation in Proliferative Potential of Human Diploid Fibroblasts:Stochastic Mechanism for Cellular Aging,”Science 207(1980):82—84.
[968] 出处同上，82。
[969] W.E.Wright and L.Hayflick,“Formation of Anucleate and Multinucleate Cellsin Normal and SV40 Transformed WI-38 by Cytochalasin B,”Experimental Cell Research 74(1972):187—94.
[970] W.E.Wright and L.Hayflick,“Nuclear Control of Cellular Aging Demonstrated by Hybridization of Anucleate and Whole Cultured Normal Human Fibroblasts,”Experimental Cell Research 96,no.1(1975):113—21.
[971] Leonard Hayflick,“Mortality and Immortality at the Cellular Level:A Review,”Biochemistry(Moscow) 62(1997):1180—90.
[972] Hermann J.Muller,“The Remaking of Chromosomes,”Collecting Net 13(1938):181—98.
[973] Barbara McClintock,“The Stability of Broken Ends of Chromosomes in Zea mays,”Genetics 126(1941):234—82.
[974] Alexey M.Olovnikov,“Telomeres,Telomerase,and Aging:Origin of the Theory,”Experimental Gerontology 31,no.4(1996):445.
[975] A.M.Olovnikov ［“Principles of Marginotomy in Template Synthesis of Polynucleoetides”］,Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 201,no.6(1971):1496—99(in Russian).
[976] A.M.Olovnikov,“A Theory of Marginotomy:The Incomplete Copying of Template Margin in Enzymic Synthesis of Polynucleotides and Biological Significance of the Phenomenon,”Journal of Theoretical Biology 41(1973):186.
[977] 出处同上，188。
[978] 出处同上，181—90。
[979] James D.Watson,“Origin of Concatameric T7 DNA,”Nature:New Biology 239(1972):197—201.
[980] Catherine Brady,Elizabeth Blackburn and the Story of Telomeres:Deciphering the Ends of DNA(Cambridge,MA,and London:MIT Press,2007),3.
[981] Elizabeth H.Blackburn and Joseph G.Gall,“A Tandemly Repeated Sequence at the Termini of the Extrachromosomal Ribosomal RNA Genes in Tetrahymena,”Journal of Molecular Biology(1978):33—53.
[982] Elizabeth H.Blackburn,Carol W.Greider,and Jack W.Szostak,“Telomeres and Telomerase:The Path from Maize,Tetrahymena and Yeast to Human Cancer and Aging,”Nature Medicine 12,no.10(2006):1134;Jack W.Szostak,“Biographical,”Nobelprize.org,www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2009/szo stak-bio.html.
[983] Jack W.Szostak and Elizabeth H.Blackburn,“Cloning Yeast Telomeres on Linear Plasmid Vectors,”Cell 29,no.1(1982):245—55.
[984] Janis Shampay,Jack W.Szostak,and Elizabeth H.Blackburn,“DNA Sequences of Telomeres Maintained in Yeast,”Nature 310,no.5973(1984):154—57.
[985] 卡罗尔·格雷德，2016年5月15日写给作者的电子邮件。
[986] Carol W.Greider and Elizabeth H.Blackburn,“Identification of a Specific Telomere Terminal Transferase Activity in Tetrahymena Extracts,”Cell 43,no.2,part 1(1985):405—13.
[987] Guo-Liang Yu et al.,“In Vivo Alteration of Telomere Sequences and Senescence Caused by Mutated Tetrahymena Telomerase RNAs,”Nature 344(1990):126—32.
[988] Carol W.Greider and Elizabeth H.Blackburn,“A Telomeric Sequence in the RNA of Tetrahymena Telomerase Required for Telomere Repeat Synthesis,”Nature 337(1989):331—37.
[989] 卡罗尔·格雷德，写给作者的电子邮件。
[990] Robert K.Moyzis et al.,“A Highly Conserved Repetitive DNA Sequence(TTAGGG)n,Present at the Telomeres of Human Chromosomes,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 85(1988):6622—26;Robin C.Allshire et al.,“Telomeric Repeats from T.thermophila Cross Hybridize with Human Telomeres,”Nature 332(1988):656—59.
[991] Calvin B.Harley,A.Bruce Futcher,and Carol W.Greider,“Telomeres Shorten During Ageing of Human Fibroblasts,”Nature 345(1990):459.
[992] Stephen S.Hall,Merchants of Immortality:Chasing the Dream of Human Life Extension(Boston and New York:Houghton Mifflin,2003),58.
[993] Andrea G.Bodnar et al.,“Extension of Life-span by Introduction of Telomerase into Normal Human Cells,”Science 279(1998):349—52.
[994] Nicholas Wade,“Cells' Life Stretched in Lab,”New York Times,January 14,1998,p.A1,www.nytimes.com/1998/01/14/us/cells-life-stretched-in-lab.html;Nicholas Wade,“Cells Unlocked,Longevity's New Lease on Life,”Week in Review,New York Times,January 18,1998,www.nytimes.com/1998/01/18/weekinreview/ideas-trends-cells-unlocked-longevity-s-new-lease-on-life.html;Nicholas Wade,“Cell Rejuvenation May Yield Rush of Medical Advances,”Science Times,New York Times,January 20,1998,www.nytimes.com/1998/01/20/science/cell-rejuvenation-may-yield-rush-of-medical-advances.html.
[995] Carl T.Hall,“Non-aging Human Cells Created in Lab;Bay Firm's Stock Soars on Hopes of Medical Advances,”San Francisco Chronicle,January 14,1998,p.1.
[996] David Stipp,“The Hunt for the Youth Pill:From Cell-Immortalizing Drugs to Cloned Organs,Biotech Finds New Ways to Fight Against Time's Toll,”Fortune,October 11,1999,199,http://archive.fortune.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/1999/10/11/267014/index.htm.
[997] Mary Armanios and Elizabeth H.Blackburn,“The Telomere Syndromes,”Nature Reviews Genetics 13(2012):693—704;Susan E.Stanley and Mary Armanios,“The Short and Long Telomere Syndromes:Paired Paradigms for Molecular Medicine,”Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 33(2015):2—3.
[998] Mary Armanios,“Telomeres and Age-Related Disease:How Telomere Biology Informs Clinical Paradigms,”Journal of Clinical Investigation 123,no.3(2013):996—1002.
[999] Gil Atzmon et al.,“Genetic Variation in Human Telomerase Is Associated with Telomere Length in Ashkenazi Centenarians,”Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107,supp.1(2010):1710—17.
[1000] Nam W.Kim et al.,“Specific Association of Human Telomerase Activity with Immortal Cells and Cancer,”Science 266(1994):2011—15.
[1001] Blackburn,Greider,and Szostak,“Telomeres and Telomerase,”1137.
[1002] Stanley and Armanios,“Short and Long Telomere Syndromes,”3—6.
[1003] Meredith Wadman,“Cell Division,”Nature 498(2013):425.
[1004] 黛比·文内奇，2013年5月23日与作者的电话访谈。
[1005] Y.Takeuchi et al.,［“Field Trial of Combined Measles and Rubella Live Attenuated Vaccine”］,Kansenshogaku Zasshi ［Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases］ 76,no.1(2002):56—62.
[1006] 日本的甲肝疫苗Aimmugen是由日本化学及血清疗法研究所使用非洲绿猴细胞系GL37生产的。见David E.Anderson,“Compositions and Methods for Treating ViralInfections,”U.S.Patent 20,140,356,399 A1,filed January 11,2013,and issued December 4,2014,section 0032。
[1007] 伊莎贝尔·克拉克斯顿2002年致黛比·文内奇的信。由黛比·文内奇提供。
[1008] 默克公司助理律师布鲁斯·埃利斯2002年12月20日致证券交易委员会的信。由黛比·文内奇提供。Alex Shukhman,attorney adviser,Securities and Exchange Commission,“Response of the Office of Chief Counsel,Division of Corporate Finance,February 26,2003,Re:Merck & Co.,Inc.,Incoming Letter Dated December 20,2002.”由黛比·文内奇提供。
[1009] 黛比·文内奇，2016年4月17日写给作者的电子邮件。
[1010] 德布拉·L.文内奇2003年6月4日致若瑟·拉辛各枢机的信。由黛比·文内奇提供。
[1011] Sarah Lueck,“Boot-Camp Bug Returns to the Barracks When Pentagon Pulls the Plug on Vaccine,”Wall Street Journal,July 13,2001.
[1012] Centers for Disease Control,“Two Fatal Cases of Adenovirus-Related Illness in Previously Healthy Young Adults—Illinois,2000,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 50,no.26(2001):553—55.
[1013] 出处同上，555。
[1014] 出处同上，553；E.L.Buescher,“Respiratory Disease and the Adenoviruses,”Medical Clinics of North America 51(1967):772,778。
[1015] Lueck,“Boot-Camp Bug Returns.”
[1016] Robert N.Potter et al.,“Adenovirus-Associated Deaths in US Military During Postvaccination Period,1999—2010,”Emerging Infectious Diseases 18,no.3(2012):507—9(doi:10.3201/ eid1803.111238);Project Director,“Adenovirus Vaccines Reinstated After Long Absence,”The History of Vaccines Blog,April 17,2012.www.historyofvaccines.org/content/blog/adenovirus-vaccines-reinstated-after-long-absence(accessed June 18,2016).
[1017] Operational Infectious Diseases,Naval Health Research Center,“Febrile Respiratory Illness(FRI) Surveillance Update,”2015,week 38(through September 26,2015),2,www.med.navy.mil/sites/nhrc/geis/Documents/FRIUpdate.pdf(access ed April 12,2016).
[1018] 麦康奈尔一家的故事来自作者在2015年6月27和28日与奇普·麦康奈尔和贝琪·麦康奈尔的面对面访谈；麦康奈尔夫妇和珍妮特·吉尔斯多夫提供的病历；奇普·麦康奈尔在2014和2015年写给作者的若干封电子邮件；以及http://www.angelsforanna.com/。
[1019] Pontifical Academy for Life,“Moral Reflections on Vaccines Prepared from Cells Derived from Aborted Human Foetuses,”Zenit,July 26,2005,https://zenit.org/articles/on-vaccines-made-from-cells-of-aborted-fetuses/(accessed April 17,2016).
[1020] David Mitchell,“Merck Focusing on Combination Vaccine:Manufacturer Stops Sales of Monovalents for Measles,Mumps,Rubella,”American Academy of Family Physicians News(online),December 24,2008.
[1021] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,“Measles,Mumps,and Rubella:Vaccine Use and Strategies for Elimination of Measles,Rubella,and Congenital Rubella Syndrome and Control of Mumps:Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices(ACIP),”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 47,no.RR-8(1998):1—57,www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00053391.htm.
[1022] Mona Marin et al.,“Use of Combination Measles,Mumps,Rubella,and Varicella Vaccine:Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices(ACIP),”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Recommendations and Reports 59,no.RR-3(2010):1—12,www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20448530.
[1023] 默克公司2009年7月1日致［匿名者］的信，https://cogforlife.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/merck2009Response.pdf April 18,2016)。
[1024] Children of God for Life,“Measles Outbreaks:Blame Merck—Not the Parents!”(press release),January 25,2015,https://cogforlife.org/measlesPress.pdf(accessed April 16,2016).
[1025] 阿兰·肖，2014年3月16日与作者的访谈。
[1026] Goberdhan P.Dimri et al.,“A Biomarker That Identifies Senescent Human Cells in Culture and in Aging Skin in Vivo,”Science 92(1995):9363—67.
[1027] Takeshi Shimi et al.,“The Role of Nuclear Lamin B1 in Cell Proliferation and Senescence,”Genes and Development 25,no.24(December 15,2011):2579—93.
[1028] Tal Ilani et al.,“A Secreted Disulfide Catalyst Controls Extracellular Matrix Composition and Function,”Science 341(2013):75—76.
[1029] Jessica Leung,Stephanie R.Bialek,and Mona Marin,“Trends in Varicella Mortality in the United States:Data from Vital Statistics and the National Surveillance System,”Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics 11,no.3(2015):662;M.Marin,J.X.Zhanag,and J.F.Seward,“Near Elimination of Varicella Deaths in the US After Implementation of the Vaccination Program,”Pediatrics 128,no.2(2011):214—20.
[1030] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,“Notifiable Infectious Diseases and Conditions:United States,2013,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 62,no.53(2015):27.
[1031] 出处同上，108；Leung,Bialek,and Marin,“Trends in Varicella Mortality,”663。
[1032] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,“Prevention of Hepatitis A Through Active or Passive Immunization,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 55,no.RR-7(2006),www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/rr/rr5507.pdf.
[1033] Division of Viral Hepatitis,Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,“Viral Hepatitis Surveillance:United States,2013,”16,fig.2.1,www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/statistics/2013surveillance/pdfs/2013hepsurveillancerpt.pdf.
[1034] Alexia Harrist et al.,“Human Rabies—Wyoming and Utah,2015,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 65,no.21(2016):529—33.Available here:http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/wr/mm6521a1.htm.
[1035] L.Dyer et al.,“Rabies Surveillance in the United States During 2013,”Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 245,no.10(2014):1111,http://avmajournals.avma.org/doi/pdf/10.2460/javma.245.10.1111.
[1036] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,“Human Rabies:Human Rabies Surveillance,”CDC.gov,September 21,2015,www.cdc.gov/rabies/location/usa/surveillance/human_rabies.html.
[1037] Harrist et al.,“Human Rabies—Wyoming and Utah,2015,”529—33.
[1038] P.D.Pratt et al.,“Human Rabies:Missouri,2014,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 65,no.10(2016):253—56,www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/wr/mm6510a1.htm.
[1039] R.E.Willoughby et al.,“Survival After Treatment of Rabies with Induction of Coma,”New England Journal of Medicine 352,no.24(June 2005):2508—14.
[1040] Ahmad Fayaz et al.,“Antibody Persistence,32 Years After Post-Exposure Prophylaxis with Human Diploid Cell Rabies Vaccine(HDCV),”Vaccine 29(2011):3742—45.
[1041] Centers for Disease Control,“Surveillance Summary:Rubella—United States,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 19,no.34(1970):336.
[1042] Dorothy M.Horstmann,“Maxwell Finland Lecture:Viral Vaccines and Their Ways,”Reviews of Infectious Diseases 1,no.3(1979):509.
[1043] 世卫组织规定，距离分裂停止还有约10代以上的WI—38细胞能够用于疫苗生产。
[1044] 出于同样的原因，世卫组织和美国食品药品监督管理局也没有对使用MRC—5细胞——1996年提取自一名英国胎儿——生产的疫苗设定DNA残留量上限。
[1045] Centers for Disease Control,“Rubella,United States,1977—80,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 29(1980):378.
[1046] Horstmann,“Maxwell Finland Lecture,”510.
[1047] Centers for Disease Control,“Annual Summary 1980:Reported Morbidity and Mortality in the United States,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 29,no.54(1981):12.
[1048] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,“Summary of Notifiable Diseases:United States,2001,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 50,no.53(2003):93.
[1049] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,“Control and Prevention of Rubella:Evaluation and Management of Suspected Outbreaks,Rubella in Pregnant Women,and Surveillance for Congenital Rubella Syndrome,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 50,no.RR-12(2001):1.
[1050] 帕梅拉·艾西尔（默克公司），2015年8月31日写给作者的电子邮件。
[1051] G.B.Grant et al.,“Global Progress Toward Rubella and Congenital Rubella Syndrome Control and Elimination:2000—2014,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 64,no.37(2015):1052—55.
[1052] Ryo Kinoshita and Hiroshi Nishiura,“Assessing Herd Immunity Against Rubella in Japan:A Retrospective Seroepidemiological Analysis of Age-Dependent Transmission Dynamics,”BMJ Open 6,no.1(2016):1.
[1053] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,“Nationwide Rubella Epidemic:Japan,2013,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 62,no.23(2013):457—62.
[1054] Kinoshita and Nishiura,“Assessing Herd Immunity,”1.
[1055] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,“Three Cases of Congenital Rubella Syndrome in the Postelimination Era:Maryland,Alabama,and Illinois,2012,”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 62,no.12(2013):226—29.
[1056] 有一个例外。根据1993年的一项法律，在没有得到堕胎女性的知情同意前，即使流产胎儿的组织没有个人信息，也不得将其植入人体，以实现治疗上的目的——例如，人们曾尝试以胎儿组织治疗帕金森病
[1057] Nathaniel Lambert et al.,“Seminar:Rubella,”Lancet 385(2015):2297,2300—2301.
[1058] Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research,Food and Drug Administration,Guidance for Industry:Characterization and Qualification of Cell Substrates and Other Biological Materials Used in the Production of Viral Vaccines for Infectious Disease Indications(Rockville,MD:U.S.Department of Health and Human Services,2007),36.
[1059] World Health Organization Expert Committee on Biological Standardization,Fifty-sixth Report,WHO Technical Report Series 941(Geneva:World Health Organization,2007),103.
[1060] 阿兰·肖，2014年3月16日与作者的访谈。
[1061] Jean Wallace,“Turmoil Besets Wistar in Wake of Koprowski's Ouster,”Scientist 6,no.5(March 2,1992),www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/12194/title/Turmoil-Besets-Wistar-In-Wake-Of-Koprowski-s-Ouster/;莫里斯·希勒曼，2004年11月30日与保罗·奥菲特的访谈。希勒曼称该数字为350万美元。
[1062] 南希·莱昂内（梯瓦制药公司下属全球专科药物公司宣传主管），2014年2月20日写给作者的电子邮件。
[1063] Robert D.Truog,Aaron S.Kesselheim,and Steven Joffe,“Paying Patients for Their Tissue:The Legacy of Henrietta Lacks,”Science 337(2012):37—38.
[1064] Meredith Wadman,“Cell Division,”Nature 498(2013):426.
[1065] 因为智障人士及其支持者在二十五年前多次强烈抗议——这实际上是一次争取研究参与权的运动，美国的规定没有向这个群体提供特殊保护。这个问题并不简单。支持者当时尤其担心，如果研究人员受到太多制约，针对精神疾病的临床研究就会遭到忽视。
[1066] 斯蒂芬·约菲，2013年2月23日与作者的电话访谈。2016年，约菲是宾夕法尼亚大学佩雷尔曼医学院的儿科肿瘤专家和生物伦理专家。
[1067] Scott D.Kominers and Gary S.Becker,“Paying for Tissue:Net Benefits,”Science 337(2012):1292—93.
[1068] E.Eiseman and S.B.Haga,Handbook of Human Tissue Resources:A National Resource of Human Tissue Samples(Santa Monica,CA:RAND Corporation,MR-954-OSTP,1999).
[1069] “Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects:Proposed Rules,”Federal Register 80,no.173(September 8,2015):53936.
[1070] Jocelyn Kaiser,“Researchers Decry Consent Proposal,”Science 352,no.6288(2016):878—79;David Malakoff,“Panel Slams Plan for Human Research Rules,”Science 353,no.6295(2016):106—7;National Academies of Sciences,Engineering,and Medicine,Optimizing the Nation’s Investment in Academic Research:A New Regulatory Framework for the 21st Century(Washington,DC:National Academies Press,2016):97—103.
[1071] Code of Federal Regulations,title 45,part 46,section 206:“Research Involving,After Delivery,the Placenta,the Dead Fetus or Fetal Material,”October 1,2014.
[1072] 下列这些州没有依据《统一组织捐赠法》来要求使用流产胎儿组织的研究项目获得胎儿母亲的同意：佛罗里达州、艾奥瓦州、肯塔基州、路易斯安那州、马里兰州、密歇根州、明尼苏达州、密苏里州、新墨西哥州、内布拉斯加州、南卡罗来纳州、南达科他州、华盛顿州和威斯康星州。密歇根州在1978年单独通过了一部法律，提出了相同的要求，Michigan Compiled Laws Annotated,section 333.2688。
[1073] Henry K.Beecher,“Ethics and Clinical Research,”New England Journal of Medicine 274,no.24(1966):1354—60,https://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/NEJM196606162742405 ;William H.Stewart,“Surgeon General's Directives on Human Experimentation,”PPO #129(Bethesda,MD:U.S.Public Health Service Division of Research Grants,revised July 1,1966).
[1074] Jean Heller,“Syphilis Victims in US Study Went Untreated for Forty Years,”Associated Press,July 24,1972.
[1075] Allan M.Brandt,“Racism and Research:The Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study,”Hastings Center Report 8,no.6(1978):21—29.
[1076] Public Law 93-348,section 212,July 12,1974.
[1077] W.J.Curran,“Government Regulation of the Use of Human Subjects in Medical Research:The Approaches of Two Federal Agencies,”in Experimentation with Human Subjects,ed.P.A.Freund(New York:George Braziller,1970),443.
[1078] Code of Federal Regulations,title 45,part 46.
[1079] Meredith Wadman,“The Truth About Fetal Tissue Research,” Nature 578(2015):178—81.
[1080] Molly Redden,“Vital Fetal Tissue Research Threatened by House of Representatives Subpoenas,”the Guardian,April 1,2016.https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/apr/01/congress-subpoenas-fetal-tissue-research-abortion.
[1081] Denise Grady and Nicholas St.Fleur,“Fetal Tissue from Abortions for Research Is Traded in a Gray Zone,”New York Times,July 27,2015.
[1082] Redden,“Vital Fetal Tissue Research Threatened.”