4.6 财富成功与正规教育
有一种假设,即学历和正规教育对创业和财务业绩的成功起次要作用,无论是在学术财富研究领域还是在流行的自助文学领域,这一观点在美国获得了强烈而广泛的认可。在一本名为《百万富翁辍学:世界上最成功的失败的励志故事》(Millionaire Dropouts:Inspiring Stories of the World’s Most Successful Failures)中,伍迪·伍德哈德(Woody Woodward)写了100位没有大学学位的知名人士的传记。[136]
有不少名人都曾辍学或大学肄业,或决定先不学习,包括俄罗斯百万富翁罗马·阿布拉莫维奇(Roman Abramovich)、保罗·艾伦(Paul Allen)和史蒂夫·鲍尔默(Steve Ballmer)(微软)、罗兰·巴龙(Roland Baron)、英国亿万富翁理查德·布兰森(Richard Branson)(16岁时离开学校)以及美国亿万富翁埃德加·布朗夫曼(Edgar Bronfman)等。就连谷歌创始人谢尔盖·布林(Sergey Brin)和沃伦·巴菲特(Warren Buffett)在大学毕业之前就已经是有钱人了。不过,大家普遍认为亿万富翁都没有完成大学学业,这种观点其实是不正确的。瑞银/普华永道研究[137]显示,世界上82%的亿万富豪都完成了大学学业。
尽管如此,还是有几位富豪让人印象深刻。《百万富翁的教育(2012)》[The Education of Millionaires(2012)]的作者迈克尔·埃尔斯伯格(Michael Ellsberg),以一系列没有学历的百万富翁的采访为依据,坚定认为正规教育并不是实现财富的重要因素。“我所采访过的以及本书提到的人中,有约90%的人确实是百万富翁,有几位甚至是亿万富翁……本书中,所有百万富翁和成功人士都对当前教育模式表示不满。”[138]这本书的观点很具有煽动性,该书表明,大学所教授的内容只会帮助少数毕业生取得财务上的成功,而实际上它有可能对其他人造成阻碍。该书得到了着名投资人彼得·塞尔(Peter Thiel)和Wordpress创始人马特·穆伦威格(Matt Mullenweg)等知名投资人和企业家的热烈推荐。“教育仍然需要学会怎样才能让你赚到钱。但是目前,几乎所有实际赚到钱的教育最后都变成了实践智慧和技能的自我教育,而这些智慧和技能是在传统教育机构以外获得的。”[139]
2009年美国出版了另一项研究,一方面研究了学校教育的作用,另一方面研究了企业家成功的实践管理经验。该研究对采访了63名自己经营保健食品商店的企业家。他们的创业成功是以其积累管理经验的年份和所接受教育的年份[从1(小学)到7(博士)]的评级衡量的。[140]结果显示:虽然“创始人的人力资本”与创业成功之间存在相关性,但是这种相关性非常小。管理经验年数和商业成功年数之间的相关性有所增强,而创业精神和学校教育或学业成绩之间的相关性则有所减弱。[141]
另一项针对506家意大利高科技初创企业的研究于2005年出版,研究发现,“经济学教育的性质以及创始人以往的工作经验对其发展有着重要的影响。事实上,创始人在经济和管理领域的大学教育年限对其发展有着积极影响,在科技领域的教育年限对其发展有较小影响,而创始人在其他领域的教育年限则不会对其发展产生影响。”[142]
对于学校教育在创造财富方面所起到的作用,德国学术财富研究界持什么态度呢?一项名为“德国财富”的研究表明,与中产阶级相比,有钱人更有可能是大学预科学校或大学的毕业生。在中产阶级中,有19.6%的人是大学预科学校毕业生,有21.8%的人是大学毕业生。就百分比来看,从大学预科学校毕业的受访者(或下面括号中已经达到大学学位的人)分成以下几组:[143]
·自营职业的富人占50.7%(46.6%)。
·富裕企业家占44.2%(37.5%)。
·不受雇于他人、从事自由职业的富人占52.2%(46.8%)。
·其他富人占32.6%(33.3%)。[144]
这表明两点:一方面,富裕人群比中产阶级人群更愿意接受顶级教育;另一方面,在这些企业家(迄今为止本研究中最大、最富有的群体)中,大学预科生和大学毕业生的数量要远低于雇员或自营职业者的人数。布林-斯马伦布留克(Bowing-Schmalenbrock)对此做出如下解释:“的确,大部分企业家是大学预科生。许多企业家在大学学习过。但是,与其他就业类型的人相比,这个人群只有少部分人获得了最高学历,尤其是最高专业资质。和理论知识相比,走创业这条路的人更需要具备技术和工艺技能。”[145]
这个解释并不令人信服。虽然企业家可能从工艺技能和技术知识中所获颇丰,但其他因素也起了十分重要的作用。其中,有两个因素对于创业成功是至关重要的:1.某些人格特质;
2.通过内隐学习获得的“隐性知识”“感知”和“直觉”。
第3章和第4章中介绍的很多学者都强调了人格特质的重要性。有的学者强调了可以通过“试错”和模仿获得的学习技能的重要性。案例研究表明,大量创业学习都是实验的产物。[146]
不过,本节内容证明,直觉和内隐学习起着重要的作用。雷伯指出,直觉是内隐学习过程的最终产物。[147]而内隐学习和学术才能几乎没什么关系。雷伯、威尔肯菲尔德(Walkenfeld)和赫恩斯塔德(Hernstadt)等人认为,区分实用(内隐)智力和学术(外显)智力更加重要。[148]许多实验证明,内隐学习的结果绝大多数是无意识的。[149]
美国心理学家罗伯特·J.斯顿伯格(Robert J.Sternberg)提出了“成功智力”的概念。根据他的模型,成功智力具有分析性、创造性和实践性。“分析性用于解决问题,创造性用于决定解决什么问题,而实践性则使解决问题的方案更有效。”[150]斯顿伯格认为,在具体情况下,与那些只在必要时才使用技术的人相比,过于依赖分析技能的人效率更低。[151]在一项针对实践智力的调查研究项目中,斯顿伯格对大量管理层人员进行了调查。“在我们研究实践智力期间,很多受访高管都抱怨,他们可以聘用一位商学院的顶级毕业生,也可以找到一位擅长分析教科书案例的人,但无法针对新商业产品或服务提出创新性理念。”[152]
布林-斯马伦布留克发现,大多数富裕人群在致富之前就已经改行了(只有不受雇于他人,他们才能成为企业家),这一点符合斯顿伯格研究的结果。“成功智力具有的共同特点就是,他们选择自己的领域,然后在该领域寻求成功。成功没有唯一标准,那些在很大程度上有所收获的人,就是那些能够在自己选择的领域(有时是自己创造的领域)中实现个人成功的人。”[153]
如果创业精神就是创造财富的重要先决条件,那么一方面,企业家的成功取决于具体的个人特质;另一方面,内隐的、无意识的学习过程使企业家拥有形成直觉性决策的能力。企业家的学业成就与财务成功之间相关性较弱也就不奇怪了。
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[105] Carol Augart Seger,“Implicit Learning,” Psychological Bulletin 115,No.2(1994),p.164.
[106] Carol Augart Seger,“Implicit Learning,” Psychological Bulletin 115,No.2(1994),p.233.
[107] Carol Augart Seger,“Implicit Learning,” Psychological Bulletin 115,No.2(1994),p.232.
[108] Arthur S.Reber,Faye F.Walkenfeld and Ruth Hernstadt,“Implicit and Explicit Learning:Individual Differences and IQ,” Journal of Experimental Psychology 17,No.5(1991),p.888 et seq.
[109] Leanne S.Woolhouse and Rowan Bayne,“Personality and the Use of Intuition:Individual Differences in Strategy and Performance on an Implicit Learning Task,” European Journal of Personality 14(2000),p.157 et seq.
[110] Charles W.Ginn and Donald L.Sexton,“A Comparison of the Personality Type Dimensions of the 1987 Inc.500 Company Founders/CEOs with Those of Slower-Growth Firms,” Journal of Business Venturing 5(1990),p.323.
[111] Charles W.Ginn and Donald L.Sexton,“A Comparison of the Personality Type Dimensions of the 1987 Inc.500 Company Founders/CEOs with Those of Slower-Growth Firms,” Journal of Business Venturing 5(1990),p.313.
[112] Fuat Oguz,“Hayek on Tacit Knowledge,” Journal of Institutional Economics 6,No.2(2010),p.162.
[113] Friedrich August von Hayek,“Rules,Perception and Intelligibility,” in Studies in Philosophy,Politics and Economics(London:Routledge & Kegan Paul,1967),p.43.
[114] Friedrich August von Hayek,“Rules,Perception and Intelligibility,” in Studies in Philosophy,Politics and Economics(London:Routledge & Kegan Paul,1967),p.45.
[115] Friedrich August von Hayek,“Rules,Perception and Intelligibility,” in Studies in Philosophy,Politics and Economics(London:Routledge & Kegan Paul,1967),p.43.
[116] Fuat Oguz,“Hayek on Tacit Knowledge.” Journal of Institutional Economics 6,No.2(2010),p.159.
[117] Michael Polanyi,The Tacit Dimension(London:Routledge,1966),p.4.
[118] Michael Polanyi,The Tacit Dimension(London:Routledge,1966),p.6.
[119] Michael Polanyi,The Tacit Dimension(London:Routledge,1966),p.20.
[120] Georg Hans Neuweg,Könnerschaft und implizites Wissen:Zur lehr-und lerntheoretischen Bedeutung der Erkenntnis-und Wissenstheorie Michael Polanyis(Münster:Waxmann Verlag,2001),S.13.
[121] Georg Hans Neuweg,Könnerschaft und implizites Wissen:Zur lehr-und lerntheoretischen Bedeutung der Erkenntnis-und Wissenstheorie Michael Polanyis(Münster:Waxmann Verlag,2001),S.25-26.
[122] Georg Hans Neuweg,Könnerschaft und implizites Wissen:Zur lehr-und lerntheoretischen Bedeutung der Erkenntnis-und Wissenstheorie Michael Polanyis(Münster:Waxmann Verlag,2001),S.27-28.
[123] Georg Hans Neuweg,Könnerschaft und implizites Wissen:Zur lehr-und lerntheoretischen Bedeutung der Erkenntnis-und Wissenstheorie Michael Polanyis(Münster:Waxmann Verlag,2001),S.28.
[124] Georg Hans Neuweg,Könnerschaft und implizites Wissen:Zur lehr-und lerntheoretischen Bedeutung der Erkenntnis-und Wissenstheorie Michael Polanyis(Münster:Waxmann Verlag,2001),S.28.
[125] Georg Hans Neuweg,Könnerschaft und implizites Wissen:Zur lehr-und lerntheoretischen Bedeutung der Erkenntnis-und Wissenstheorie Michael Polanyis(Münster:Waxmann Verlag,2001),S.28.
[126] Karen E.Watkins and Victoria J.Marsick,“Towards a Theory of Informal and Incidental Learning in Organizations,” International Journal of Lifelong Education 11,No.4(1992),p.288.
[127] Günther Dohmen,Das informelle Lernen:Die internationale Erschließung einer bisher vernachlässigten Grundform des menschlichen Lernens für das lebenslange Lernen aller,Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung(Bonn:BMBF,2001),S.7.
[128] Günther Dohmen,Das informelle Lernen:Die internationale Erschließung einer bisher vernachlässigten Grundform des menschlichen Lernens für das lebenslange Lernen aller,Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung(Bonn:BMBF,2001),S.19.
[129] Günther Dohmen,Das informelle Lernen:Die internationale Erschließung einer bisher vernachlässigten Grundform des menschlichen Lernens für das lebenslange Lernen aller,Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung(Bonn:BMBF,2001),S.21.
[130] Günther Dohmen,Das informelle Lernen:Die internationale Erschließung einer bisher vernachlässigten Grundform des menschlichen Lernens für das lebenslange Lernen aller,Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung(Bonn:BMBF,2001),S.23.
[131] Günther Dohmen,Das informelle Lernen:Die internationale Erschließung einer bisher vernachlässigten Grundform des menschlichen Lernens für das lebenslange Lernen aller,Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung(Bonn:BMBF,2001),S.35-36.
[132] Günther Dohmen,Das informelle Lernen:Die internationale Erschließung einer bisher vernachlässigten Grundform des menschlichen Lernens für das lebenslange Lernen aller,Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung(Bonn:BMBF,2001),S.36.
[133] Wiebken Düx and Erich Sass,“Lernen in informellen Kontexten:Lernpotenziale in Settings des freiwilligen Engagements,” Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft 8,No.3(2005),S.395.
[134] 参见本书9.5节。
[135] Marion Golenia and Nils Neuber,“Bildungschancen in der Kinder-und Jugendarbeit:Eine Studie zum informellen Lernen im Sportverein,” in Informelles Lernen im Sport:Beiträge zur allgemeinen Bildungsdebatte,edited by Nils Neuber(Wiesbaden:VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften,2010),S.198.
[136] Woody Woodward,Millionaire Dropouts:Inspiring Stories of the World’s Most Successful Failures(Murrieta:Millionaire Dropouts,2006).
[137] Billionaires:Master Architects of Great Wealth and Lasting Legacies(London:UBS and PWC,2015),p.17.
[138] Michael Ellsberg,The Education of Millionaires:Everything You Won’t Learn in College about How to Be Successful(New York:Portfolio/Pengiun,2012),p.10.
[139] 此外,虽然统计数据显示,美国大学毕业生比没有学历的毕业生大约多赚65%的钱,但作者同样质疑了这种相关性:这种对比忽略了机会成本,即完成大学学业所需的时间和财政资助。如果这笔钱反过来投资在一项回报率为8%的指数基金上,那么经济回报将大于学习所产生的回报。Michael Ellsberg,The Education of Millionaires:Everything You Won’t Learn in College about How to Be Successful(New York:Portfolio/Penguin,2012),pp.10,243 et seq。
[140] Gerry Segal,Dan Borgia and Jerry Schoenfeld,“Founder Human Capital and Small Firm Performance:An Empirical Study of Founder-Managed Natural Food Stores,” Journal of Management and Marketing Research 4(2009),pp.3-4.
[141] Gerry Segal,Dan Borgia and Jerry Schoenfeld,“Founder Human Capital and Small Firm Performance:An Empirical Study of Founder-Managed Natural Food Stores,” Journal of Management and Marketing Research 4(2009),p.5.
[142] Massimo G.Colombo and Luca Grilli,“Founders’ Human Capital and the Growth of New Technology-Based Firms:A Competence-Based View,” Research Policy 34(2005),p.795.
[143] Melanie Böwing-Schmalenbrock,Wege zum Reichtum:Die Bedeutung von Erbschaften,Erwerbstätigkeit und Persönlichkeit für die Entstehung von Reichtum(Wiesbaden:Springer VS,2012),S.207-209.
[144] 令人吃惊的是,这个小组的大学毕业生竟然比大学预科毕业生还要多。
[145] Melanie Böwing-Schmalenbrock,Wege zum Reichtum:Die Bedeutung von Erbschaften,Erwerbstätigkeit und Persönlichkeit für die Entstehung von Reichtum(Wiesbaden:Springer VS,2012),S.209.
[146] David Deakins and Mark Freel,“Entrepreneurial Learning and the Growth Process in SMEs,” Learning Organization 5,No.3(1998),pp.144–155.
[147] Arthur S.Reber,“Implicit Learning and Tacit Knowledge,” Journal of Experi-mental Psychology 118,No.3(1989),p.232.
[148] Arthur S.Reber,Faye F.Walkenfeld and Ruth Hernstadt,“Implicit and Explicit Learning:Individual Differences and IQ,” Journal of Experimental Psychology 17,No.5(1991),p.894.
[149] Arthur S.Reber,“Implicit Learning and Tacit Knowledge,” Journal of Experi-mental Psychology 118,No.3(1989),pp.229.
[150] Robert J.Sternberg,Successful Intelligence:How Practical and Creative Intelli-gence Determine Success in Life(New York:Penguin Group,1997),p.47.
[151] Robert J.Sternberg,Successful Intelligence:How Practical and Creative Intelli-gence Determine Success in Life(New York:Penguin Group,1997),p.48.
[152] Robert J.Sternberg,Successful Intelligence:How Practical and Creative Intelli-gence Determine Success in Life(New York:Penguin Group,1997),p.130.
[153] Robert J.Sternberg,Successful Intelligence:How Practical and Creative Intelli-gence Determine Success in Life(New York:Penguin Group,1997),p.153.
