专业术语表
加速 acceleration
Approach to educating the gifted that moves them through the curriculum at an unusually rapid pace.
顺应 accommodation
Piaget’s term for changes in a cognitive structure to include new information.
获得性免疫缺陷综合征（AIDS） acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
Viral dise syassete mth.a t undermines effective functioning of the immune积极参与 active engagement
Personal involvement in schooling, work, family life, or other activity.
急性疾病 acute medical conditions Illnesses that last a short time.
适应 adaptation
Piaget’s term for adjustment to new information about the environment.
青少年期 adolescence
Developmental transition between childhood and adulthood entailing major physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes.
青春期发育突进 adolescent growth spurt Sharp increase in height and weight that precedes sexual maturity.
青春期叛逆 adolescent rebellion
Pattern of emotional turmoil, characteristic of a minority of adolescents, which may involve conflict with family, alienation from adult society, reckless behavior, and rejection of adult values.
可用性 affordances
In the Gibsons’ ecological theory of perception, the fit between a person’s physical attributes and capabilities and characteristics of the environment.
等位基因 alleles
Two or more alternative forms of a gene that can occupy the same position on paired chromosomes and affect the same trait.
利他主义 altruism
Behavior intended to help others out of inner concern and without expectation of external reward; may involve self-denial or self-sacrifice.
矛盾型（抗拒型）依恋 ambivalent (resistant) attachment Pattern in which an infant becomes anxious before the primary caregiver leaves, is extremely upset during his or her absence, and both seeks and resists contact on his or her return.
泛灵论 anailmism
Tendency to attribute life to objects that are not alive神经性厌食症 anorexia nervosa
Eating disorder characterized by selfstarvation.
缺氧症 anoxia
Lack of oxygen, which may cause brain damage.
阿普加量表 Apgar scale
Standard measurement of a newborn’s condition; it assesses appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, and respiration.
艺术疗法 art therapy
Therapeutic approach that allows a person to express troubled feelings without words, using a variety of art materials and media.
同化 assimilation
Piaget’s term for incorporation of new information into an existing cognitive structure.
哮喘 asthma
A chronic respiratory disease characterized by suddinegn. attacks of coughing, wheezing, and difficulty in breath-依恋 attachment
Reciprocal, enduring tie between two people, especially between infant and caregiver, each of whom contributes to the quality of the relationship.
注意力缺陷/多动症 attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Syndrome characterized by persistent inattention and distractibility, impulsivity, low tolerance for frustration, and inappropriate overactivity.
专制型 authoritarian
In Baumrind’s terminology, parenting style emphasizing control and obedience.
权威型 authoritative
In Baumrind’s terminology, parenting style blending respect for a child’s individuality with an effort to instill social values.
自闭症 autism
Pervasive developmental disorder of the brain, characterized by lack of normal social interaction, impaired communication and imagination, and a highly restricted range of activities and interests.
自传体记忆 autobiographical memory
Memory of specific events in one’s own life.
自主对羞愧和怀疑 autonomy versus shame and doubt Erikson’s second stage in psychosocial development, in which children achieve a balance between self-determination and control by others.
常染色体 autosomes
In humans, the 22 pairs of chromosomes not related to sexual differentiation.
回避型依恋 avoidant attachment
Pattern in which an infant rarely cries when separated from the primary caregiver and avoids contact upon his or her return.
基本信任对基本不信任 basic trust versus basic mistrust Erikson’s first crisis in psychosocial development, in which infants develop a sense of the reliability of people and objects.
贝雷婴儿发展量表 Bayley Scales of Infant Development Standardized test of infants’ development.
行为治疗 behavior therapy Therapeutic approach using principles of learning theory to encourage desired behaviors or eliminate undesired ones; also called behavior modification.
行为遗传学 behavioral genetics
Quantitative study of relative hereditary and environmental influences on behavior.
行为主义 behaviorism
Learning theory that emphasizes the predictable role of environment in causing observable behavior.
行为主义的方法 behaviorist approach
Approach to the study of cognitive d leeavrenliongp.ment that is concerned with basic mechanics of双语使用者 bilingual
Fluent in two languages.
双语教学 bilingual education System of teaching non–English-speaking children in their native language while they learn English, and later switching to all-English instruction.
生态学理论 bioecological theory
Bronfenbrenner’s approach to understanding processes and contexts of human development.
产伤 birth trauma
Injury to newborn sustained at the time of birth身体意象 body image
Descriptive and evaluative beliefs about one’s appearance.
脑的发育加速期 brain growth spurts
Periods of rapid brain growth and development.
布氏新生儿行为评价量表（NBAS） Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) Neurological and behavioral test to measure neonate’s responses to the environment.
神经性贪食症 bulimia nervosa
Eating disorder in which a person regularly eats huge quantities of food and then purges the body by laxatives, induced vomiting, fasting, or excessive exercise.
欺负 bullying
Aggression deliberately and persistently directed against a particular target, or victim, typically one who is weak, vulnerable, and defenseless.
定型化 canalization
Limitation on variance of expression of certain inherited characteristics.
个案研究 case study
Study of a single subject, such as an individual or family.
细胞死亡 cell death
In brain development, the normal elimination of excess brain cells to achieve more efficient functioning.
中央执行 central executive
In Baddeley’s model, element of working memory that controls the processing of information.
中枢神经系统 central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord.
中心化 centration
In Piaget’s theory, tendency of preoperational cohthiledrrse.n to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect头尾原则 cephalocaudal principle
Principle that development proceeds in a head-to-tail direction; that is, that upper parts of the body develop before lower parts of the trunk.
剖腹产 cesarean delivery
Delivery of a baby by surgical removal from the uterus.
儿化语（CDS） child-directed speech (CDS)
Form of speech often used in talking to babies or toddlers; includes slow, simplified speech, a high-pitched tone, exaggerated vowel sounds, short words and sentences, and much repetition; also called parentese.
儿童抑郁症 childhood depression
Mood disorder characterized by such symptoms as a prolonged sense of friendlessness, inability to have fun or concentrate, fatigue, extreme activity or apathy, feelings of worthlessness, weight change, physical complaints, and thoughts of death or suicide.
染色体 chromosomes
Coils of DNA that consist of genes.
慢性疾病 chronic medical conditions Illnesses or impairments that persist for at least 3 months.
时序系统 chronosystem
Bronfenbrenner’s term for effects of time on other developmental systems.
循环反应 circular reactions
Piaget’s term for processes by which an infant learns to reproduce desired occurrences originally discovered by chance.
类包含 class inclusion
Understanding of the relationship between a whole and its parts.
经典条件作用 classical conditioning
Learning based on association of a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a particular response with another stimulus that does elicit the response.
语码混用 code mixing
Use of elements of two languages, sometimes in the same utterance, by young children in households where both languages are spoken.
语码转换 code switching
Changing one’s speech to match the situation, as in people who are bilingual.
认知发展 cognitive development
Pattern of change in mental abilities, such as learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity.
认知神经科学的方法 cognitive neuroscience approach Approach to the study of cognitive development that links brain processes with cognitive ones.
认知神经科学 cognitive neuroscience
Study of links between neural processes and cognitive abilities.
认知理论 cognitive perspective
View that thought processes are central to cognitive development.
认知发展阶段理论 cognitive-stage theory Piaget’s theory that children’s cognitive development advances in a series of four stages involving qualitatively distinct types of mental operations.
同辈 cohort
A group of people born at about the same time.
承诺 commitment
Marcia’s term for personal investment in an occupation or system of beliefs.
约束性顺从 committed compliance
Kochanska’s term for wholehearted obedience of a parent’s orders without reminders or lapses.
成分元素 componential element
Sternberg’s term for the analytic aspect of intelligence.
概念性知识 conceptual knowledge
Acquired interpretive understandings stored in long-term memory.
一致 concordant
Term describing tendency of twins to share the same trait or disorder.
具体运算 concrete operations
Third stage of Piagetian cognitive development (approximately from ages 7 to 12), during which children develop logical but not abstract thinking.
品行障碍（CD） conduct disorder (CD)
Repetitive, persistent pattern of aggressive, antisocial behavior violating societal norms or the rights of others.
良心 conscience
Internal standards of behavior, which usually control one’s conduct and produce emotional discomfort when violated.
守恒 conservation
Piaget’s term for awareness that two objects that are equal according to a certain measure remain equal in the face of perceptual alteration so long as nothing has been added to or taken away from either object.
建构性游戏 constructive play
Play involving use of objects or materials to make something.
情境元素 contextual element
Sternberg’s term for the practical aspect of intelligence.
情境理论 contextual perspective
View of human development that sees the individual as inseparable from the social context.
控制组 control group
In an experiment, a group of people, similar to those in the experimental group, who do not receive the treatment under study.
习俗道德 conventional morality (or morality of conventional role conformity)
Second level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral rneaalsizoendin. g in which standards of authority figures are inter-聚合思维 convergent thinking
Thinking aimed at finding the one right answer to a problem.
共同约束 coregulation
Transitional stage in the control of behavior in which parents exercise general supervision and children exercise moment-to-moment self- regulation.
体罚 corporal punishment
Use of physical force with the intentbieohna ovfi ocra.using pain but not injury so as to correct or control相关研究 correlational study
Research design intended to discover whether a statistical relationship between variables exists.
创造力 creativity
Ability to see situations in a new way, to produce innovations, or to discern previously unidentified problems and find novel solutions.
危机 crisis
Marcia’s term for period of conscious decision making related to identity formation.
关键期 critical period
Specific time when a given event or its absence has the greatest impact on development.
跨通道迁移 cross-modal transfer
Ability to use information gained by one sense to guide another.
横断研究 cross-sectional study
Study designed to assess age-related differences, in which people of different ages are assessed on one occasion.
文化偏见 cultural bias
Tendency of intelligence tests to include items calling for knowledge or skills more familiar or meaningful to some cultural groups than to others.
文化 culture
A society’s or group’s total way of life, including customs, traditions, beliefs, values, language, and physical products—all learned behavior passed on from parents to children.
文化公平 culture-fair
Describing an intelligence test that deals with experiences common to various cultures, in an attempt to avoid cultural bias.
不受文化影响 culture-free
Describing an intelligence test that, if it were possible to design, would have no culturally linked content.
文化相关 culture-relevant
Describing an intelligence test that would draw on and adjust for culturally related content.
去中心化 decenter
In Piaget’s terminology, to think simultaneously about several aspects of a situation.
陈述性知识 declarative knowledge
Acquired factual knowledge stored in long-term memory.
解码 decoding
Process of phonetic analysis by which a printed word is converted to spoken form before retrieval from long-term memory.
演绎推理 deductive reasoning
Type of logical reasoning that moves from a general premise about a class to a conclusion about a particular member or members of the class.
延迟模仿 deferred imitation
Piaget’s term for reproduction of an observed behavior after the passage of time by calling up a stored symbol of it.
丹佛发展筛选测验 Denver Developmental Screening Test Screening test given to children 1 month to 6 years old to determine whether they are developing normally.
脱氧核糖核酸（DNA） deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Chemical that carries inheriltiefed. instructions for the development of all cellular forms of因变量 dependent variable
In an experiment, the condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable.
深度知觉 depth perception
Ability to perceive objects and surfaces three-dimensionally.
分化 differentiation
Process by which cells acquire specialized structure and function.
“困难型”儿童 “difficult” children
Children with irritable temperament, irregular biological rhythms, and intense emotional responses.
训练 discipline
Methods of molding children’s character and of teaching them to exercise self-control and engage in acceptable behavior.
去习惯化 dishabituation
Increase in respon siveness after presentation of a new stimulus.
无组织—无目标型依恋 disorganized-disoriented attachment Pattern in which an infant, after sepa ration from the primary caregiver, shows contradictory behaviors upon his or her return.
发散思维 divergent thinking
Thinking that produces a variety of fresh, diverse possibilities.
双卵性双胞胎 dizygotic twins
Twins conceived by the union of two different ova (or a single ovum that has split) with two different sperm cells; also called fraternal twins.
显性遗传 dominant inheritance
Pattern of inheritance in which, when a child receives different alleles, only the dominant one is expressed.
唐氏综合征 Down syndrome
Chromosomal disorder characterized by moderate-to-severe mental retardation and by such physical signs as a downward sloping skinfold at the inner corners of the eyes.
药物治疗 drug therapy
Administration of drugs to treat emotional or psychological disorders.
双重表征理论 dual representation hypothesis Proposal that children under the age of 3 have difficulty grasping spatial relationships because of the need to keep more than one mental representation in mind at the same time.
难语症 dyslexia
Developmental disorder in which reading achievement is substantially lower than predicted by IQ or age.
早期干预 early intervention
Systematic process of providing services to help families meet young children’s developmental needs.
“容易型”儿童 “easy” children
Children with a generally happy temperament, regular biological rhythms, and a readiness to accept new experiences.
生态知觉理论 ecological theory of perception Theory developed by Eleanor and James Gibson, which describes developing motor and perceptual abilities as interdependent parts of a fteuxntcst.ional system that guides behavior in varying con-自我中心主义 egocentrism
Piaget’s term for inability to consider another ptheorsuognh’ts. point of view; a characteristic of young children’s精细加工 elaboration
Mnemonic strategy of making mental associations involving items to be remembered.
胎心电子监护 electronic fetal monitoring Mechanical monitoring of fetal heartbeat during labor and delivery.
诱导模仿 elicited imitation
Research method in which infants or toddlers are induced to imitate a specific series of actions they have seen but not necessarily done before.
胚胎期 embryonic stage
Second stage of gestation (2 to 8 weeks), characterized by rapid growth and development of major body systems and organs.
早期读写能力 emergent literacy
Preschoolers’development of skills, kinngo.w ledge, and attitudes that underlie reading and writ-情感虐待 emotional maltreatment
Action or inaction that may cause behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or mental disorders.
情绪 emotions
Subjective reactions to experience that are associated with physiological and behavioral changes.
同理心 empathy
Ability to “put oneself in another person’s place” and feel what the other person feels.
编码 encoding
Process by which information is prepared for long-term storage and later retrieval.
全英语教学 English-immersion
Approach to teaching English as a secolinshd. language in which instruction is presented only in Eng-充实 enrichment
Approach to educating the gifted, which broadens and deepens knowledge and skills through extra activities, projects, field trips, or mentoring.
尿床 enuresis
Repeated urination in clothing or in bed.
环境 environment
Totality of nonhereditary, or experiential, influences on development.
情景记忆 episodic memory
Long-term memory of specific experiences or events, linked to time and place.
平衡 equilibration
Piaget’s term for the tendency to seek a stable balance among cognitive elements.
种族曲解 ethnic gloss
Overgeneralization about an ethnic or cultural group that obscures differences within the group.
种族群体 ethnic group
A group united by ancestry, race, religion, language, and/or national origins, which contribute to a sense of shared identity.
人种志研究 ethnographic study
In-depth study of a culture, which uses a combination of methods including participant observation.
习性学 ethology
Study of distinctive adaptive behaviors of species ocife asn. imals that have evolved to increase survival of the spe-进化心理学 evolutionary psychology
Application of Darwinian principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest to individual behavior.
进化论/社会生物学理论 evolutionary/sociobiological perspective View of human development that focuses on evolutionary and biological bases of social behavior.
外在系统 exosystem
Bronfenbrenner’s term for linkages between tcwhiol do. r more settings, one of which does not contain the经验元素 experiential element
Sternberg’s term for the insightful or creative aspect of intelligence.
实验 experiment
Rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other.
实验组 experimental group
In an experiment, the group receiving the treatment under study.
外显记忆 explicit memory
Intentional and conscious memory, generally of facts, names, and events.
大家庭 extended family
Multigenerational kinship network of parents, children, and other relatives, sometimes living together in an extended-family household.
外部记忆辅助手段 external memory aids
Mnemonic strategies using something outside the person.
家庭治疗 family therapy
Psychological treatment in which a therapist sees the whole family together to analyze patterns of family functioning.
快速映射 fast mapping
Process by which a child absorbs the meaning of a new word after hearing it once or twice in conversation.
受精 fertilization
Union of sperm and ovum to produce a zygote; also called conception.
胎儿酒精综合症（FAS） fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
Combination of mental, motor, and developmental abnormalities affecting the offspring of some women who drink heavily during pregnancy.
胎儿期 fetal stage
Final stage of gestation (from 8 weeks to birth), characterized by increased differentiation of body parts and greatly enlarged body size.
精细动作技能 fine motor skills
Physical skills that involve the small muscles and eye-hand coordination.
同一性早闭 foreclosure
Identity status, described by Marcia, in which a person who has not spent time considering alternatives (that is, has not been in crisis) is committed to other people’s plans for his or her life.
形式运算 formal operations
Piaget’s final stage of cognitive development, characterized by the ability to think abstractly.
功能性游戏 functional play
Play involving repetitive muscular movements.
入门毒品 gateway drugs
Drugs such as alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana, the use of which tends to lead to use of more addictive drugs.
性别 gender
Significance of being male or female.
性别恒常性 gender constancy
Awareness that one will always be male or female. Also called sex-category constancy.
性别认同 gender identity
Awareness, developed in early childhood, that one is male or female.
性别角色 gender roles
Behaviors, interests, attitudes, skills, and traits that a culture considers appropriate for each sex; differs for males and females.
性别刻板印象 gender stereotypes
Preconceived generalizations about male or female role behavior.
性别—图式理论 gender-schema theory
Theory, proposed by Bem, that children socialize themselves in their gender roles by developing a mentally organized network of information about what it means to be male or female in a particular culture.
性别原型 gender-typing
Socialization process by which children, at an early age, learn appropriate gender roles.
一般性焦虑障碍 generalized anxiety disorder Anxiety not focused on any single target.
通用记忆 generic memory
Memory that produces scripts of familiar routines to guide behavior.
基因 genes
Small segments of DNA located in definite positrieodnisty .o n particular chromosomes; functional units of he-遗传密码 genetic code
Sequence of bases within the DNA molecule; governs the formation of proteins that determine the structure and functions of living cells.
遗传咨询 genetic counseling
Clinical service that advises couples odfe ftehcetisr. probable risk of having children with hereditary基因型 genotype
Genetic makeup of a person, containing both expressed and unexpressed characteristics.
基因型—环境相关 genotype-environment correlation Tendency of certain genetic and environmental influences to reinforce each other; may be passive, reactive (evocative), or active. Also called genotype-environment covariance.
基因型—环境交互作用 genotype-environment interaction The portion of phenotypic variation that results from the reactions of genetically different individuals to similar environmental conditions.
胚芽期 germinal stage
First 2 weeks of prenatal development, characterized by rapid cell division, blastocyst formation, and implantation in the wall of the uterus.
吻合度 goodness of fit
Appropriateness of environmental demands and constraints to a child’s temperament.
粗略动作技能 grmousss cmleso.t or skills Physical skills that involve the large引导性参与 guided participation
Participation of an adult in a child’s activity in a manner that helps to structure the activity and taod ublrti.n g the child’s understanding of it closer to that of the习惯化 habituation
Type of learning in which familiarity with a stimulus reduces, slows, or stops a response. 利ha手ndedness Preference for using a particular hand.
触觉感知 haptic perception
Ability to acquire information about properties of objects, such as size, weight, and texture, by handling them.
遗传 heredity
Inborn characteristics inherited from the biological heredity遗传力 heritability
Statistical estimate of contribution of heredity to individual differences in a specific trait within a given population.
杂合的 heterozygous
Possessing differing alleles for a trait.
特定历史时代的人 historical generation A group of people strongly influepnecrieodd .b y a major historical event during their formative单词句 holophrase
Single word that conveys a complete thought.
家庭环境观察测评系统 Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME)
Instrument to measure the influence of the home environment on children’s cognitive growth.
纯合的 homozygous
Possessing two identical alleles for a trait.
水平滞差 horizontal décalage
Piaget’s term for inability to transfer learning about one type of conservation to other types, which causes a child to master different types of conservation tasks at different ages.
敌意性攻击 hostile aggression
Aggressive behavior intended to hurt another person.
发展心理学 human development
Scientific study of processes of change and stability throughout the human life b.
高血压 hypertension
Chronically high blood pressure.
假设 hypotheses
Possible explanations for phenomena, used to predict the outcome of research.
假设—演绎推理 hypothetical-deductive reasoning Ability, believed by Piaget to accompany the stage of formal operations, to develop, consider, and test hypotheses.
理想自我 ideal self
The self one would like to be.
认同 identification
In Freudian theory, the process by which a young child adopts characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors of the parent of the same sex.
同一性 identity
According to Erikson, a coherent conception of the self, made up of goals, values, and beliefs to which a person is solidly committed.
同一性获得 identity achievement
Identity status, described by Marcia, that is characterized by commitment to choices made following a crisis, a period spent in exploring alternatives.
同一性扩散 identity diffusion
Identity status, described by Marcia, that is characterized by absence of commitment and lack of serious consideration of alternatives.
同一性状态 identity statuses
Marcia’s term for states of ego development that depend on the presence or absence of crisis and commitment.
同一性对同一性混乱 identity versus identity confusion Erikson’s fifth stage of psychosocial development, in which an adolescent seeks to develop a coherent sense of self, including the role she or he is to play in society. Also called identity versus role confusion.
假想观众 imaginary audience
Elkind’s term for observer who exists only in an adolescent’s mind and is as concerned with the adolescent’s thoughts and actions as the adolescent is.
内隐记忆 implicit memory
Unconscious recall, generally of habits and skills; sometimes called procedural memory.
印刻 imprinting
Instinctive form of learning in which, during a critical period in early development, a young animal forms an attachment to the first moving object it sees, usually the mother.
不完全显性 incomplete dominance
Pattern of inheritance in which a child receives two different alleles, resulting in partial expression of a trait.
自变量 independent variable
In an experiment, the condition over which the experimenter has direct control.
个体差异 individual differences
Differences in characteristics, influences, or developmental outcomes.
个别心理治疗 individual psychotherapy Psychological treatment in which a therapist sees a troubled person one-on-one.
归纳推理 inductive reasoning
Type of logical reasoning that moves from particular observations about members of a class to a general conclusion about that class.
诱导技术 inductive techniques
Disciplinary techniques designed to induce desirable behavior by appealing to a child’s sense of reason and fairness.
勤奋对自卑 industry versus inferiority Erikson’s fourth stage of psychosocial development, in which children must learn the productive skills their culture requires or else face feelings of inferiority.
婴儿死亡率 infant mortality rate
Proportion of babies born alive who die within the first year.
信息加工取向 information-processing approach Approach to the study of cognitive development by observing and analyzing the mental processes involved in perceiving and handling information.
主动对内疚 initiative versus guilt
Erikson’s third stage in psychosocial development, in which children balance the urge to pursue goals with moral reservations that may prevent carrying them out.
工具性攻击 instrumental aggression
Aggressive behavior used as a means of achieving a goal.
整合 integration
Process by which neurons coordinate the activities of muscle groups.
智力行为 intelligent behavior
Behavior that is goal oriented and adaptive to circumstances and conditions of life.
内化 internalization
During socialization, process by which children accept societal standards of conduct as their own.
不可见模仿 invisible imitation
Imitation with parts of one’s body that one cannot see.
智商测验 IQ (intelligence quotient) tests Psychometric tests that seek to measure intelligence by comparing a test taker’s performance with standardized norms.
不可逆性 irreversibility
Piaget’s term for a preoperational child’s failure to understand that an operation can go in two or more directions.
考夫曼儿童成套评估测验 Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC)
Nontraditional individual intelligence test designed to provide fair assessments of minority children and children with disabilities.
实验室观察 laboratory observation
Research method in which all participants are observed under the same controlled conditions.
语言 language
Communication system based on words and grammar.
语言习得机制（LAD） language acquisition device (LAD)
In Chomsky’s terminology, an inborn mechanism that enables children to infer linguistic rules from the language they hear.
单侧化优势 lateralization
Tendency of each of the brain’s hemispheres to have specialized functions.
学习障碍（LDs） learning disabilities (LDs)
Disorders that interfere with specific aspects of learning and school achievement.
学习理论 learning perspective
View of human development that holds that changes in behavior result from experience, or adaptation to the environment.
毕生发展 life-b development
Concept of human development as a lifelong process, which can be studied scientifically.
语言式讲话 linguistic speech
Verbal expression designed to convey meaning.
读写能力 literacy
(1) Ability to read and write. (2) In an adult, ability to use printed and written information to function in society, achieve goals, and develop knowledge and potential.
纵向研究 longitudinal study
Study designed to assess changes in a sample over time.
长时记忆 long-term memory
Storage of virtually unlimited capacity that holds information for very long periods.
低体重儿 low birth weight
Weight of less than 51/2 pounds (2,500 grams) at birth because of prematurity or being small for date.
宏观系统 macrosystem
Bronfenbrenner’s term for a society’s overall cultural patterns.
成熟 maturation
Unfolding of a natural sequence of physical aanbdil itbieehs.a vioral changes, including readiness to master new机械论发展模型 mechanistic model
Model that views human development as a series of passive, predictable responses to stimuli.
月经初潮 menarche
Girl’s first menstruation.
精神发育迟滞 mental retardation
Significantly subnormal cognitive functioning.
中观系统 mesosystem
Bronfenbrenner’s term for linkages between two or more microsystems.
元认知 metacognition
Awareness of a person’s own mental pro-元记忆 metamemory
Understanding of processes of memory.
微观系统 microsystem
Bronfenbrenner’s term for a setting in which a child interacts with others on an everyday, face-to-face basis.
记忆术 mnemonic strategies
Techniques to aid memory.
单卵性双胞胎 monozygotic twins
Twins resulting from the division of a single zygote after fertilization; also called identical twins.
同一性延缓 moratorium
Identity status, described by Marcia, in which a person is currently considering alternatives (in crisis) and seems headed for commitment.
多因素传递 multifactorial transmission Combination of genetic and environmental factors to produce certain complex traits.
突变 mutations
Permanent alterations in genes or chromosomes that may produce harmful characteristics.
互相调节 mutual regulation
Process by which infant and caregiver communicate emotional states to each other and respond appropriately.
髓鞘化 myelination
Process of coating neural pathways with a fatty substance (myelin) that enables faster communication between cells.
先天伦 nativism
Theory that human beings have an inborn capacity for language acquisition.
自然分娩 natural childbirth
Method of childbirth that seeks to prevent pain by eliminating the mother’s fear through education about the physiology of reproduction and training in breathing and relaxation during delivery.
自然选择 natural selection
According to Darwin’s theory of evolution, process by which characteristics that promote survival of a species are reproduced in successive generations, and characteristics that do not promote survival die out.
自然观察 naturalistic observation
Research method in which behavior is studied in natural settings without intervention or manipulation.
忽视 neglect
Failure to meet a dependent’s basic needs.
新生儿黄疸 neonatal jaundice
Condition in many newborn babies, caused by immaturity of liver and evidenced by yellowish appearance; can cause brain damage if not treated promptly.
新生儿期 neonatal period
First 4 weeks of life, a time of transition from intrauterine dependency to independent existence.
新生儿 neonate
Newborn baby, up to 4 weeks old.
神经元 neurons
Nerve cells.
匹配选择 niche-picking
Tendency of a person, especially after early childhood, to seek out environments compatible with his or her genotype.
非常态的 nonnormative
Characteristic of an unusual event that happens to a particular person or a typical event that happens at an unusual time of life.
非共享环境影响 nonshared environmental effects The unique environment in which each child grows up, consisting of distinctive i annfloutheenrc. es or influences that affect one child differently than常态的 normative
Characteristic of an event that occurs in a similar way for most people in a group.
核心家庭 nuclear family
Two-generational kinship, economic, and household unit consisting of one or two parents and their biological children, adopted children, or stepchildren.
肥胖 obesity
(1) Extreme overweight in relation to age, sex, height, and body type.
客体永久性 object permanence
Piaget’s term for the understanding that a person or object still exists when out of sight.
观察学习 observational learning Learning through watching the behavior of others.
强迫症（OCD） obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
Anxiety aroused by repetitive, intrusive thoughts, images, or impulses, often leading to compulsive ritual behaviors.
公开领养 open adoption
Adoption in which the birth parents and the adoptive parents know each other’s identities and share infomation or have direct contact.
操作性条件作用 operant conditioning
(1) Learning based on association of behavior with its consequences. (2) Learning based on reinforcement or punishment.
操作定义 operational definition
Definition stated solely in terms of the operations or procedures used to produce or measure a phenomenon.
对立违抗性障碍（ODD） oppositional defiant disorder (ODD)
Pattern of behavior, persisting into middle childhood, marked by negativity, hostility, and defiance.
有机论发展模型 organismic model
Model that views human development as internally initiated by an active organism and as occurring in a sequence of qualitatively different stages.
组织 organization
(1) Mnemonic strategy of cate go rizing material to be remembered.(2) Piaget’s term for the creation of systems of knowledge.
欧提斯—列农学业能力测试 Otis-Lennon School Ability Test Group intelligence test for kindergarten through twelfth grade.
外显攻击overt aggression
Aggression that is openly directed at its target.
参与观察 participant observation
Research method in which the observer lives with the people or participates in the activity being observed.
分娩 parturition
Process of uterine, cervical, and other changes, usually lasting about two weeks preceding childbirth.
放任型 permissive
In Baumrind’s terminology, parenting style emphasizing self- expression and self-regulation.
个人神话 personal fable
Elkind’s term for conviction that one is special, unique, and not subject to the rules that govern the rest of the world.
表现型 phenotype
Observable characteristics of a person.
语音或编码强调法 phonetic, or code-emphasis approach Approach to teaching reading that emphasizes decoding of unfamiliar words.
身体虐待 physical abuse
Action taken deliberately to endanger another person, involving potential bodily injury.
生理发展 physical development
Growth of body and brain, including phaetatletrhn. s of change in sensory capacities, motor skills, and皮亚杰理论的方法 Piagetian approach
Approach to the study of cognitive development that describes qualitative stages in cognitive functioning.
可塑性 plasticity
(1) Modifiability of performance. (2) Modifiability, or “molding,” of the brain through experience.
游戏疗法 play therapy
Therapeutic approach in which a child plays freely while a therapist observes and occasionally comments, asks questions, or makes suggestions.
多基因遗传 polygenic inheritance
Pattern of inheritance in which multiple genes at different sites on chromosomes affect a complex trait.
后习俗道德 postconventional morality (or morality of autonomous moral principles)
Third level of Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning, in which people follow internally held moral principles and can decide among conflicting moral standards.
胎儿过度成熟 postmature
Referring to a fetus not yet born as of 2 weeks after the due date or 42 weeks after the mother’s last menstrual period.
强制命令 power assertion
Disciplinary strategy designed to discourage undesirable behavior through physical or verbal enforcement of parental control.
语用学 pragmatics
(1) Set of linguistic rules that govern the use of language for communication. (2) The practical knowledge needed to use language for communicative purposes.
前习俗道德 preconventional morality First level of Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning in which control is external and rules are obeyed in order to gain rewards or avoid punishment or out of self-interest.
偏见 prejudice
Unfavorable attitude toward members of certain groups outside one’s own, especially racial or ethnic groups.
前语言式讲话 prelinguistic speech
Forerunner of linguistic speech; utterance of sounds that are not words. Includes crying, cooing, babbling, and accidental and deliberate imitation of sounds without understanding their meaning.
前运算阶段 preoperational stage
In Piaget’s theory, the second major stage of cognitive development, in which children become more sophisticated in their use of symbolic thought but are not yet able to use logic.
有准备的分娩 prepared childbirth
Method of childbirth that uses instruction, breathing exercises, and social support to induce controlled physical responses to uterine contractions and reduce fear and pain.
假装游戏 pretend play
Play involving imaginary people and situatpiloanys. ; also called fantasy play, dramatic play, or imaginative早产儿 preterm (premature) infants Infants born before completing the thirty-seventh week of gestation.
第一性征 primary sex characteristics Organs directly related to reproduction, which enlarge and mature during adolescence.
自言自语 private speech
Talking aloud to oneself with no intent to communicate.
程序性知识 procedural knowledge
Acquired skills stored in long-term memory.
亲社会行为 prosocial behavior
Any voluntary behavior intended to help others.
保护因素 protective factors
Influences that reduce the impact of early stress or other potentially negative influences and tend to predict positive outcomes.
远近原则 proximodistal principle
Principle that development proceeds from within to without; that is, that parts of the body near the center develop before the extremities.
精神分析理论 psychoanalytic perspective View of human development as being shaped by unconscious forces.
心理攻击 psychological aggression
Verbal attacks on a child by a parent that may result in psychological harm.
心理测量的方法 psychometric approach
Approach to the study of cognitive development that seeks to measure the quantity of intelligence a person possesses.
性心理发展 psychosexual development In Freudian theory, an unvarying sequence of stages of personality development during infancy, childhood, and adolescence, in which gratification shifts from the mouth to the anus and then to the genitals.
心理社会发展 psychosocial development(1) In Erikson’s eight-stage theory, the socially and culturally influenced process of development of the ego, or self. (2) Pattern of change in emotions, personality, and social relationships.
青春期 puberty
Process by which a person attains sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce.
惩罚 punishment
In operant conditioning, a process that weakens and discourages repetition of a behavior.
质变 qualitative change
Change in kind, structure, or organizatciaotnio, nsu. ch as the change from nonverbal to verbal communi-定性研究 qualitative research
Research that focuses on “soft” data, such as subjective experiences, feelings, or beliefs.
量变 quantitative change
Change in number or amount, such as in height, weight, or size of vocabulary.
定量研究 quantitative research
Research that focuses on “hard” data and numerical or statistical measures.
反应范围 reaction range
Potential variability, depending on environmtraeint. tal conditions, in the expression of a hereditary真实自我 real self
The self one actually is.
回忆 recall
Ability to reproduce material from memory.
隐性遗传 recessive inheritance
Pattern of inheritance in which a child receives identical recessive alleles, resulting in expression of a nondominant trait.
再认 recognition
Ability to identify a previously encountered stimulus.
反射行为 reflex behaviors
Automatic, involuntary, innate responses to stimulation.
复述 rehearsal
Mnemonic strategy to keep an item in working memory through conscious repetition.
强化 reinforcement
In operant conditioning, a process that strengthens and encourages repetition of a desired behavior.
关系攻击 relational aggression
Aggression aimed at damaging or interfering with another person’s relationships, reputation, or pgsreyscshioolno.g ical well-being; also called covert or indirect ag-表征能力 representational ability
Piaget’s term for capacity to store mental images or symbols of objects and events.
表征映射 representational mappings In neo-Piagetian terminology, second stage in development of self-definition, in which a child makes logical connections between aspects of the self but still sees these characteristics in all-ornothing terms.
表征系统 representational systems
In neo-Piagetian terminology, the third stage in development of self-definition, characterized by breadth, balance, and the integration and assessment of various aspects of the self.
韧性儿童 resilient children
Children who weather adverse circumstances, function well despite challenges or threats, or bounce back from traumatic events.
提取 retrieval
Process by which information is accessed or recalled from memory storage.
风险因素 risk factors
Conditions that increase the likelihood of a negative developmental outcome.
追逐打闹游戏 rough-and-tumble play
Vigorous play involving wrestling, hitting, and chasing, often accompanied by laughing and screaming.
样本 sample
Group of participants chosen to represent the entire population under study.
脚手架 scaffolding
Temporary support to help a child master a task.
图式 schemes
Piaget’s term for organized patterns of behavior used in particular situations.
精神分裂症 schizophrenia
Mental disorder marked by loss of contact with reality; symptoms include hallucinations and delusions.
学校恐惧症 school phobia
Unrealistic fear of going to school; may be a form of separation anxiety disorder or social phobia.
科学方法 scientific method
System of established principles and processes of scientific inquiry, which includes identifying a problem to be studied, formulating a hypothesis to be tested by research, collecting data, analyzing the data, and disseminating findings.
脚本 script
General remembered outline of a familiar, repeated event, used to guide behavior.
第二性征 secondary sex characteristics Physiological signs of sexual maturation (such as breast development and growth of body hair) that do not involve the sex organs.
长期趋势 secular trend Trend that can be seen only by observing several generations, such as the trend toward earlier attainment of adult height and sexual maturity, which began a century ago.
安全型依恋 secure attachment
Pattern in which an infant cries or protests when the primary caregiver leaves and actively seeks out the caregiver upon his or her return.
自我意识 self-awareness
Realization that one’s existence and functioning are separate from those of other people and things.
自我概念 self-concept
Sense of self; descriptive and evaluative mental picture of one’s abilities and traits.
自我意识情绪 self-conscious emotions Emotions, such as embarrassment, empathy, and envy, that depend on self-awareness.
自我定义 self-definition
Cluster of characteristics used to describe oneself.
自我效能感 self-efficacy
Sense of one’s own capability to master challenges and achieve goals.
自尊 self-esteem
The judgment a person makes about his or her self-worth.
自我评价情绪 self-evaluative emotions Emotions, such as pride, shame, and guilt, that depend on both self-awareness and knowledge of socially accepted standards of behavior.
自我调节 self-regulation
A person’s independent control of behavior to conform to understood social expectations.
敏感期 sensitive periods
Times in development when a person is particularly open to certain kinds of experiences.
感知运动阶段 sensorimotor stage
In Piaget’s theory, first stage in cognitive development, during which infants learn through senses and motor activity.
感觉记忆 sensory memory
Initial, brief, temporary storage of sensory information.
分离焦虑 separation anxiety
Distress shown by someone, typically an infant, when a familiar caregiver leaves.
分离焦虑障碍 separation anxiety disorder Condition involving excessive, prolonged anxiety concerning separation from home or from people to whom a person is attached.
序列研究 sequential study
Study design that combines cross-sectional and longitudinal techniques.
排序 seriation
Ability to order items along a dimension.
性染色体 sex chromosomes
Pair of chromosomes that determine sex: XmXal ei.n the normal human female, XY in the normal human伴性遗传 sex-linked-inheritance
Pattern of inheritance in which certain characteristics carried on the X chromosome inherited from the mother are transmitted differently to her male and female offspring.
性虐待 sexual abuse
Physically or psychologically harmful sexual activity, or any sexual activity involving a child and an older person.
性取向 sexual orientation
Focus of consistent sexual, romantic, and affectionate interest, either heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual.
性传播疾病（STDs） sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)
Diseases spread by sexual contact.
单一表征 single representations
In neo-Piagetian terminology, first stage in development of self-definition, in which children describe themselves in terms of individual, unconnected characteristics and in all-or-nothing terms.
情境性顺从 situational compliance
Kochanska’s term for obedience of a parent’s orders only in the presence of signs of ongoing parental control.
“慢热型”儿童 “slow-to-warm-up” children Children whose temperament is generally mild but who are hesitant about accepting new experiences.
小于胎龄儿 small-for-date (small-for-gestational age) infants Infants whose birth weight is less than that of 90 percent of babies of the same gestational age, as a result of slow fetal growth.
社会资本 social capital
Family and community resources on which a person can draw.
社会认知 social cognition
Ability to understand that other people have mental states and to gauge their feelings and intentions.
社会认知理论 social cognitive theory Albert Bandura’s expansion of social learning theory; holds that children learn gender roles through socialization.
社会建构 social construction
Concept about the nature of reality based on societally shared perceptions or assumptions.
社会互动模型 social interaction model Model, based on Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, which proposes that children construct autobiographical memories through conversation with adults about shared events.
社会学习理论 social learning theory
Theory that behaviors are learned by othbesoerryv.i ng and imitating models. Also called social cognitive社交恐怖症 soactiiaoln ps.hobia
Extreme fear and/or avoidance of social situ-社会促动 social promotion
Policy of automatically promoting children even if they do not meet academic standards.
社会参照 social referencing
Understanding an ambiguous situation by seeking out another person’s perception of it.
社会情境的方法 social-contextual approach Approach to the study of cognitive development by focusing on environmental influences, particularly parents and other caregivers.
社会化 socialization
Development of habits, skills, values, and motives shared by responsible, productive members of a society.
社会文化理论 sociocultural theory
Vygotsky’s theory of how contextual factors affect children’s development.
社会经济地位（SES） socioeconomic status (SES)
Combination of economic and social factors describing an individual or family, including income, education, and occupation.
初精 spermarche
Boy’s first ejaculation.
自发性流产 spontaneous abortion
Natural expulsion from the uterus of an embryo that cannot survive outside the womb; also called miscarriage.
斯坦福—比奈智力量表 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale Individual intelligence test for ages 2 and up used to measure fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory.
觉醒状态 state of arousal
An infant’s physiological and behavioral status at a given moment in the periodic daily cycle of wakefulness, sleep, and activity.
斯滕伯格三元能力测验（STAT） Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test (STAT)
Test that seeks to measure componential,experiential, and contextual intelligence.
“冷面”范式 “still-face” paradigm
Research procedure used to measure mutual regulation in infants 2 to 9 months old.
存储 storage Retention of information in memory for future use.
陌生情境 Strange Situation
Laboratory technique used to study infant attachment.
陌生人焦虑 stranger anxiety
Wariness of strange people and places, shown by some infants during the second half of the first year.
物质滥用 substance abuse
Repeated, harmful use of a substance, usually alcohol or other drugs.
物质依赖 substance dependence
Addiction (physical or psychological, or both) to a harmful substance.
胎儿猝死综合症（SIDS） sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
Sudden and unexplained death of an apparently healthy infant.
符号功能 symbolic function
Piaget’s term for ability to use mental representations (words, numbers, or images) to which a child has attached meaning.
语法 syntax
Rules for forming sentences in a particular language.
动作系统 systems of action
Increasingly complex combinations of motor skills, which permit a wider or more precise range of movement and more control of the environment.
内隐知识 tacit knowledge
Sternberg’s term for information that is not formally taught or openly expressed but is necessary to function successfully.
电报句 telegraphic speech
Early form of sentence use consisting of only a few essential words.
气质 temperament
Characteristic disposition, or style of approaching and reacting to situations.
致畸的 teratogenic
Capable of causing birth defects.
理论 theory
Coherent set of logically related concepts that seeks to organize, explain, and predict data.
心理理论 theory of mind
Awareness and understanding of mental processes.
多元智力理论 theory of multiple intelligences Gardner’s theory that each person has several distinct forms of intelligence.
转换 transduction
Piaget’s term for a preoperational child’s tendency to mentally link particular phenomena, whether or not there is logically a causal relationship.
传递性关系推理 transitive inference
Understanding of the relationship between two objects by knowing the relationship of each to a third object.
智力三元理论 triarchic theory of intelligence Sternberg’s theory describing three types of intelligence: componential, experiential, and contextual.
双向（双语混合）学习 two-way (dual-language) learning Approach to secondlanguage education in which English speakers and non- English speakers learn together in their own and each other’s languages.
超声波 ultrasound
Prenatal medical procedure using high-frequency sound waves to detect the outline of a fetus and its movements, so as to determine whether a pregnancy is progressing normally.
期望悖反的范式 violation-of-expectations Research method in which dishabituation to a stimulus that conflicts with experience is taken as evidence that an infant recognizes the new stimulus as surprising.
可见的模仿 visible imitation
Imitation with parts of one’s body that one can see.
视崖 visual cliff
Apparatus designed to give an illusion of depth and used to assess depth perception in infants.
视觉引导 visual guidance
The use of the eyes to guide the movement of the hands (or other parts of the body).
视觉偏好 visual preference
Tendency of infants to spend more time looking at one sight than another.
视觉认知记忆 visual recognition memory Ability to distinguish a familiar visual stimulus from an unfamiliar one when shown both at the same time.
基于视觉的提取 visually based retrieval Process of retrieving the sound of a printed word upon seeing the word as a whole.
韦氏儿童智力量表（WISC-III） Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III)
Individual intelligence test for school-age children, which yscieolrdes. verbal and performance scores as well as a combined修订版韦克斯勒学前和小学智力量表（WPPSI-III） Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Revised (WPPSI-III)
Individual intelligence test for children ages 2 1/2 to 7 that yields verbal and performance scores as well as a combined score.
全语言教学法 whole-language approach Approach to teaching reading that emphasizes visual retrieval and use of contextual clues.
收回爱 withdrawal of love
Disciplinary strategy that involves ignoring, isolating, or showing dislike for a child.
工作记忆 working memory
Short-term storage of information being actively processed.
最近发展区（ZPD） zone of proximal development (ZPD)
Vygotsky’s term for the difference between what a child can do alone and what the child can do with help.
受精卵 zygote
One-celled organism resulting from fertilization.
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