五个发现
自主学习包含五个发现,每个发现都代表一个断层。当然,我们的目的是运用每一个发现来实现造就情商领导者所需要做出的改变,使他们掌握书中所提到的18项情感领导能力(参见第三章的专栏)。
这种学习是反复循环的:各个步骤并不以平稳、有序的方式展开,而是遵循一种特定的顺序,每个步骤都需要不同程度的时间和精力。随着时间的推移,培养新习惯的结果就是新习惯成为真实自我崭新的一部分。
通常情况下,随着生活习惯、情商和领导风格的变化,愿望、梦想以及理想自我也会随之改变。因此这种发展与适应的循环将会终生持续进行。
揭示了理想自我后,你就会充满动力想要发展自己的领导能力。也就是说,你看到了理想自我的形象。无论这一理想是出现在你的梦中,与指引你生活的价值观和承诺紧紧联系在一起,还是简单的反映,这种愿景都足以强大到可以唤起你的激情和希望。在困难和令人沮丧的变化过程中,它会变成维持工作的动力。
第二个发现类似于从镜子中发现真实自我,包括你的行为、他人对你的看法以及你内心深处的信念。这些观察所得与你的理想自我相一致,即可看作个人优势,其他则代表了真实自我和理想自我之间的差异。意识到自己的优势和不足,就可以为改变领导风格铺平道路。这就是治愈我们之前描述的“首席执行官病”的一剂良药。
但要使这种变化获得成功,你还需要为增强能力制定一项议程,这就是第三个发现。一项行动计划需要列举详细的指导,包括每天要尝试什么新鲜事物,发展自己的优势并慢慢接近理想。这个计划应该令人内心感到满意,适应你的学习偏好以及生活和工作的实际情况。
第四个发现就是培养新的领导技能。
第五个发现可能会发生在整个过程的任何时候。你需要通过他人来认识你的理想自我或真实自我,发现优势和不足,并规划未来的发展议程,开展磨炼和实践。领导力培养也可能只发生在我们人际关系的动荡和可能性之中。他人可以帮助你看清自己缺少什么,肯定你取得的进展,测试洞察力,让你知道自己做得到底怎么样。他们为你提供了磨炼与实践的环境。虽然这种模式被称为自主学习过程,但实际上它不可能单独完成。如果没有他人的参与,也就不会产生持续的变化。
总结整个过程,那些坚持并成功改变的人都遵循了以下几个阶段:
·第一个发现:理想自我——我想成为一个怎样的人?
·第二个发现:真实自我——我是一个什么样的人?我的优势和不足是什么?
·第三个发现:我的学习议程——如何建立我的优势,同时改正不足之处?
·第四个发现:磨炼并实践新习惯、思想、感情,直至可灵活掌控。
·第五个发现:培养支持和信任的关系,使变化成为可能。
理想的情况是,这种进步在断层中产生,也就是发现的时刻,它不仅可以激发个人意识,还会产生一种紧迫感。在下面的章节,我们将对这些发现和它们如何造就领导能力的推论过程进行深入的探索。
- The CEO disease: First described with this title by John Byrne in “CEO Disease,” Business Week,1 April 1991, 52–59.
- Feedback is less consistent for managers: James Conway and Allen Huffcutt, “PsychometricProperties of Multi-source Performance Ratings: A Meta-analysis of Subordinate, Supervisor, Peer andSelf-Ratings,” Human Performance 10, no. 4 (1977): 331–360.
- Women and minorities get less feedback than others: A number of studies and managementscholars report that women and members of visible minority groups receive less and less usefulfeedback than others. See, for example, Peggy Stuart, “What Does the Glass Ceiling Cost You?”Personnel Journal 71, no. 11 (1992): 70–80; Ann M. Morrison, Randall P. White, Ellen Van Velsor,and The Center for Creative Leadership, Breaking the Glass Ceiling: Can Women Reach the Top ofAmerica’s Largest Corporations? (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1987); and Taylor Cox Jr., CulturalDiversity in Organizations: Theory, Research, and Practice (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers,1993).
- The poorest managers exaggerate their ability the most: J. Kruger and D. Dunning, “Unskilled andUnaware of It: How Difficulties in Recognizing One’s Own Competence Lead to Inflated Self-Assessments,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77, no. 6 (1999): 1121–1134.
- CEOs of best-performing healthcare companies: Eric Harter, “The Quest for SustainableLeadership: The Importance of Connecting Leadership Principles to Concepts of OrganizationalSustainability” (EDM diss., Case Western Reserve University, 1999).
- Top-performing versus low-performing leaders: Analysis by Michele Burckle, in Fabio Sala, ECITechnical Manual (Boston: Hay Group, 2001).
- The honeymoon effect: John P. Campbell, Marvin D. Dunnette, Edward E. Lawler III, and Karl E.Weick, Managerial Behavior, Performance, and Effectiveness (New York: McGraw Hill, 1970)reviewed various studies and came to this conclusion. More recent meta-analytic studies and utilityanalyses confirm that significant changes can and do occur, but not with the impact that the level ofinvestment would lead us to expect nor with many types of training. See Charles C. Morrow, M.Quintin Jarrett, and Melvin Rupinski, “An Investigation of the Effect and Economic Utility ofCorporate Wide Training,” Personnel Psychology 50 (1997): 91–119; Timothy Baldwin and J. KevinFord, “Transfer of Training: A Review and Directions for Future Research,” Personnel Psychology 41(1988): 63–105; and Michael J. Burke and Russell R. Day, “A Cumulative Study of the Effectivenessof Managerial Training,” Journal of Applied Psychology 71, no. 2 (1986): 232–245. Furthermore, whena change has been noted, a question about the sustainability of the changes is raised because of therelatively short time periods studied.
- Few studies show impact of training on behavior: Some studies have shown that training can have apositive effect on job or life outcomes, which are the ultimate purpose of development efforts. Butshowing an impact on outcomes, although desired, may also blur how the change actually occurs. Dothe person’s actions and habits change, or do other factors in the situations account for the change? Aglobal literature search by the Consortium on Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizationsfound only fifteen programs that improved emotional intelligence. Most of them showed impact on joboutcomes (such as number of new businesses started) or life outcomes (such as finding a job orsatisfaction). These are reviewed in Cary Cherniss and Mitchell Adler, Promoting EmotionalIntelligence in Organizations: Make Training in Emotional Intelligence Effective (Washington, DC:American Society for Training and Development, 2000).
- Studying the effect of training: A quality research design would include pre- and post-trainingtesting of the desired behavior, as well as some way to compare it with other programs, such as bycomparison groups or through a time-series design. The lack of these elements in the relatively fewattempts to evaluate training means that many results are not as useful as they could be.
- The effect of training months later: In what is often considered a classic study, educationaladministrators showed improvement of only 8 percent on a broad array of these skills three monthsafter training. Raymond A. Noe and Neal Schmitt, “The Influence of Trainee Attitudes on TrainingEffectiveness: Test of a Model,” Personnel Psychology 39 (1986): 497–523. Behavioral change wasassessed through a 360-degree type of measure. The training participant’s immediate work supervisor,two teachers (i.e., subordinates or peers), and two support staff members rated the trainee before andafter the training on six scales assessing behaviors such as sensitivity toward others, leadership, anddecisiveness. The percentage improvement drawn from this study reflects behavior after the training ascompared with before the training.In another study, the social awareness and social skills of managersin a steel company improved by 9 percent three months after training, and dropped a little to a 7 percentimprovement eighteen months after training. Herbert H. Hand, Max D. Richards, and John W. SlocumJr., “Organizational Climate and the Effectiveness of a Human Relations Training Program,” Academyof Management Journal 16, no. 2 (1973): 185–246. The behavior was assessed by groups of theparticipants’ work subordinates using a questionnaire regarding such areas as concern and sensitivityfor others, self-awareness, and initiative. These data were collected for those going through the trainingand for comparison groups. The percentage improvement in this study reflects behavior after thetraining as compared with before the training. In several other studies where behavior of people whowere trained was compared with others not trained (or not given the same type of training), but inwhich no pretraining testing was involved, the results were similar: an 11 percent comparative increasein social skills two months after training first-level supervisors in a large urban medical center. K. N.Wexley and W. F. Memeroff, “Effectiveness of Positive Reinforcement and Goal Setting as Methods ofManagement Development,” Journal of Applied Psychology 60, no. 4 (1975): 446–450. Subordinatesof the participants in the training and comparison groups completed a questionnaire regarding theirsupervisors that assessed behaviors such as consideration and sensitivity toward others, conflictresolution, cooperative spirit within the work group, and initiating and communicating expectations.The percentage improvement in this study reflects behavior after the training of those in the traininggroups as compared with those in the comparison groups. The “post-test only” comparison is alegitimate approximation because participants were randomly assigned to the training and controlgroups. In another study, first-level supervisors showed an 18 percent improvement in a variety of EI-related behaviors one year after training. Gary P. Latham and Lise M. Saari, “Application of Social-Learning Theory to Training Supervisors through Behavioral Modeling,” Journal of AppliedPsychology 64, no. 3 (1979): 239–246. Supervisors of those in the training and comparison groupsassessed the participants three months and one year following the training on factors such as emotionalcontrol, supervision, and interactions with others. The percentage improvement in this study reflectsbehavior after the training of those in the training groups as compared with those in the comparisongroups. The “post-test only” comparison is legitimate because participants were randomly assigned togroups. Another study showed an average increase of 8 percent improvement following thedevelopment of a plan for change. Dianne P. Young and Nancy M. Dixon, Helping Leaders TakeEffective Action: A Program Evaluation (Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership, 1996).Executives and managers attending the LeaderLab program were assessed by co-workers about five anda half months after the program and retrospectively one year earlier. The behaviors studied includedflexibility, self-confidence, interpersonal relationship skills, and coping with emotional disequilibrium.Percentage improvement in this study reflectsco-workers’ assessments at the time of evaluation minustheir views of the person one year earlier, divided by the earlier scores.
- The overall impact of training: The 10 percent figure represents the average percentageimprovement on the multiple or composite EI behaviors from the five studies reviewed. It does notinclude the one study on communications skills, because it looked at only one specific competency. Ifyou include that study, the overall average is still only 15 percent. The lack of studies, difficulty indetermining comparability of measures, and lack of consistency in research designs conspire to make aprecise calculation impossible. There are, undoubtedly, other studies that were not found and reviewed,or that were not available through journals and books and were therefore overlooked. We do not claimthis is an exhaustive review, but it is suggestive of the percentage improvement as a roughapproximation of the real impact. This approximation is offered to help in the comparison of therelative impact of management training, management education, and selfdirected learning.Unfortunately, many of the more recent meta-analyses and review articles use statistical techniquesreporting effect sizes and other associational data. Although this helps a researcher determine thestatistical significance of the findings, it does not allow for comparison of percentage improvement. Inaddition, the lack of research with more than a one-year to eighteen-month follow-up period makes itdifficult to comment on the sustainability of the changes observed following training.
- The half-life of knowledge: L. Specht and P. Sandlin, “The Differential Effects of ExperientialLearning Activities and Traditional Lecture Classes in Accounting,” Simulations and Gaming 22, no. 2(1991): 196–210.
- People develop EI competencies throughout life: Matthew Mangino and Christine Dreyfus,“Developing Emotional Intelligence Competencies” (presentation to the Consortium for Research onEmotional Intelligence in Organizations, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 19 April 2001). The pattern of thenatural acquisition of EI competencies fits with an earlier study of managers at NASA by ChristineDreyfus, “Scientists and Engineers as Effective Managers: A Study of Development of InterpersonalAbilities” (Ph.D. diss., Case Western Reserve University, 1991).
- EI competencies improve with age: Scores from self-assessment as well as others’ assessment ofthe competencies were significantly correlated with age for all clusters of the EI competencies. Thiswas not a function of managerial level; the correlation with job level only appeared for the relationshipmanagement skills cluster. Sala, ECI Technical Manual.
- Extinguishing of training effects: This does not include changes induced, willingly or not, bychemical or hormonal changes in one’s body. But even in such situations, the interpretation of thechanges and behavioral comportment following it will be affected by the person’s will, values, andmotivations.
- Importance of extended practice: Thomas Lewis, Fari Amini, and Richard Lannon, A GeneralTheory of Love (New York: Random House, 2000).
- Impact of mindfulness training: The research, as yet unpublished, is cited in Tara Bennett-Goleman, Emotional Alchemy: How the Mind Can Heal the Heart (New York: Harmony Books, 2001).
- Brain plasticity of London taxi drivers: Eleanor A. Maguire, David G. Gadian, Ingrid S.Johnsrude, Catriona D. Good, John Ashburner, Richard S. J. Frackowiak, and Christopher D. Firth,“Navigation-Related Structural Change in the Hippocampi of Taxi Drivers.” Proceedings of theNational Academy of Sciences 97, no 8 (2000): 4398–4403. Available online athttp://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/97/8/4398.
- Using neural connections over and over strengthens them: Gerald M. Edelman, Neural Darwinism:The Theory of Neuronal Group Selection (New York: Basic Books, 1987), 58.
- Strengthening of neural connections: Researchers at Case Western Reserve University, notablyProfessor James E. Zull, have noted that when nerve networks connecting nerves to muscles werestimulated vigorously, new branches and connections were made. James E. Zull, The Art of Changing aBrain: Helping People Learn by Understanding How the Brain Works (Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishers,2002). Professor Elizabeth Gould of Princeton University, studying neurogenesis, has shown thatlearning new things stimulated new nerves to survive in primates, while lack of learning new thingsresulted in the loss of new nerve cells (summarized in Sandra Blakeslee, “A Decade of DiscoveryYields a Shock about the Brain,” The New York Times, 4 January 2000, D1).
- It takes a limbic connection to change skills: Lewis, Amini, and Lannon, General Theory of Love,177.
- Outcome assessment studies: Since 1987, starting even before the course was required of allstudents, Richard Boyatzis has directed a series of follow-up studies to document the course andprogram’s long-term impact. The studies measured improvements from self-reports and frombehavioral coding of “critical incident” audiotapes and videotapes of the students tackling typical workchallenges. Data collection began when students started the course, and assessments were made whenthey graduated and when they were at work. For details of the studies, see Richard E. Boyatzis, AnnBaker, David Leonard, Kenneth Rhee, and Lorraine Thompson, “Will It Make a Difference?: Assessinga Value-Based, Outcome Oriented, Competency-Based Professional Program,” in Innovating inProfessional Education: Steps on a Journey from Teaching to Learning, eds. Richard E. Boyatzis, ScottS. Cowen, and David A. Kolb (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995); Richard E. Boyatzis, DavidLeonard, Kenneth Rhee, and Jane V. Wheeler, “Competencies Can Be Developed, but Not the Way WeThought,” Capability 2, no. 2 (1996): 25–41; and Richard E. Boyatzis, Jane V. Wheeler, and R. Wright,“Competency Development in Graduate Education: A Longitudinal Perspective,” Proceedings of theFirst World Conference on Self-Directed Learning (Montreal: GIRAT, in press).
- Studies of the impact of other MBA programs: The studies were done for the American Assemblyof Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) in 1979 and the 1980s and are reported in RichardBoyatzis and Mike Sokol, A Pilot Project to Assess the Feasibility of Assessing Skills and PersonalCharacteristics of Students in Collegiate Business Programs. Report to the AACSB (St. Louis: AACSB,1982) and Development Dimensions International (DDI), Final Report: Phase III. Report to theAACSB (St. Louis: AACSB, 1985). The baseline studies of the Weatherhead School of Management inthe late 1980s used tests for their comparisons and are reviewed in Boyatzis, Cowen, and Kolb,Innovating in Professional Education. The percentage improvement reported was calculated by dividingthe change in students’ graduating scores from their entering scores by their entering scores. The firsttwo programs were analyzed with assessment centers, so the data reported are about student’s behaviorshown in simulations. The other programs included tests that were shown to assess EI behaviors butwere not direct measures of the participants’ behavior.
- Comparison of percentage improvement in EI: The percentage improvement shown and thecomparison to other programs involved observed behavior (not tests) as assessed by coding of worksamples, “critical incident” interviews, videotaped assessment center exercises, or 360-degreeassessment by others of a person’s behavior. The percentage improvement shown for each time periodis an average of the increase in frequency for each of the competencies in that cluster (i.e., graduatingfrequency of showing the competency minus the entering frequency, divided by the entering frequencyof the behavior). To control for language difficulties, only native English speakers were included in thisanalysis. The reader is cautioned that the percentages refer to different samples and therefore are shownto suggest the range of impact expected over time. The samples shown in the figure are from thefollowing cadres: The oneto two-year results reflect 163 of the full-time MBAs graduating in 1993,1994, and 1995 (reported in the references in note 25). The three- to fiveyear results are from fifty-fourof the part-time MBAs graduating in 1995 and 1996 reported in note 25. The five- to seven-year resultsreflect thirty of the part-time MBAs graduating in 1995 and 1996 studied eighteen to thirty months aftergraduation by Jane V. Wheeler in her dissertation, “The Impact of Social Environments on Self-Directed Change and Learning” (Ph.D. diss., Case Western Reserve University, 1999). Jane Wheelerreported a comparison of the three- to five-year results with the five- to seven-year results for the samepeople in her dissertation. Her smaller sample of thirty of the part-time MBA graduates of the classes of1995 and 1996 showed 53 percent improvement in self-awareness and self-management and 33 percentimprovement in social awareness and relationship management at three to five years. These numbersare slightly different from the percentages shown for the complete sample in the graph but are still at arelatively high level compared with other management training or MBA graduate education programs.The self-awareness and management competencies included achievement orientation, planning,initiative, conscientiousness, selfcontrol, and self-confidence. The social awareness and relationshipmanagement competencies included empathy, social objectivity, building bonds, conflict management,influence, leadership in teamwork, and developing others.
- It is also worth noting that the graduates of the competency-based program, both full-time andpart-time, showed significant improvement on 100 percent of the six cognitive competencies assessed.Meanwhile, the earlier non-competency-based MBA program had shown improvement on only 86percent of the cognitive competencies in the full-time program and 57 percent of the cognitivecompetencies in the part-time program. Among full-time MBA students, the improvements were in 100percent of the fourteen emotional intelligence competencies assessed as compared with gains in only 50percent of these competencies for MBA students who did not receive the course. Part-timers taking thecourse also showed impressive gains: They gained in thirteen of fourteen competencies as comparedwith gains in only one of the twelve competencies assessed for those without the course.
- Impact of the Professional Fellows Program: Ronald Ballou, David Bowers, Richard E. Boyatzis,and David A. Kolb, “Fellowship in Lifelong Learning: An Executive Development Program forAdvanced Professionals,” Journal of Management Education 23, no. 4 (1999): 338–354.
- Emergence of the model of self-directed learning: Richard Boyatzis first saw the promise of thisapproach during his personal involvement with three streams of research, all providing convincingevidence about how people can best improve the emotional intelligence abilities that make leadershipeffective. His first exposure to development that works came from his work with David Kolb and theircolleagues at MIT’s Sloan School of Management, which showed that people who used self-directedlearning could improve their performance. Early in the 1970s, students there selected a business skill toimprove—and because so many had “nerdy” engineering and science backgrounds, interpersonal skillswere a common choice. These studies are described in David A. Kolb, Sarah K. Winter, and David E.Berlew, “Self-Directed Change: Two Studies,” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 6, no. 3 (1968):453–471; David A. Kolb, “A Cybernetic Model of Human Change and Growth,” unpublished workingpaper 526–71, Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, 1971;David A. Kolb and Richard E. Boyatzis, “On the Dynamics of the Helping Relationship,” Journal ofApplied Behavioral Science 6, no. 3 (1970): 267–289; David A. Kolb and Richard E. Boyatzis, “Goal-Setting and Self-Directed Behavior Change,” Human Relations 23, no. 5 (1970): 439–457; and RichardE. Boyatzis and David A. Kolb, “Feedback and Self-Directed Behavior Change,” unpublished workingpaper 394–69, Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, 1969.His second exposure came from his involvement (along with Daniel Goleman) with the pioneeringresearch of David McClelland and colleagues at Harvard University in the 1960s and 1970s that firstshowed that the skills that make people highly successful entrepreneurs can be developed.McClelland’s group developed training programs to enhance the drive to achieve—perhaps the firstemotional intelligence competence to be studied in depth. The results: Those who went through thetraining went on to lead small-business start-ups that met with dramatic success, creating more newjobs, starting more new businesses, and generating greater revenues than comparison groups. See DavidC. McClelland and David G. Winter, Motivating Economic Achievement (New York: Free Press,1969) and David Miron and David C. McClelland, “The Impact of Achievement Motivation Trainingon Small Business,” California Management Review 21, no. 4 (1979): 13–28. Richard Boyatzis’s workwith David C. McClelland in power motivation training as a therapeutic program to help alcoholicsmaintain sobriety and regain jobs and their functioning as citizens added to this work on motivationalchange. See Henry Cutter, Richard E. Boyatzis, and David Clancy, “The Effectiveness of PowerMotivation Training for Rehabilitating Alcoholics,” Journal of Studies on Alcohol 38, no. 1 (1977) andRichard E. Boyatzis, “Power Motivation Training: A New Treatment Modality,” Annals of the NewYork Academy of Sciences 273 (1976): 525–532. A third source for insights remains the research ofhis doctoral students and colleagues at the Weatherhead School of Management at Case WesternReserve University. Other prominent models of change are David McClelland’s theory of motiveacquisition and that of James Prochaska and his colleagues. See David C. McClelland, “Toward aTheory of Motive Acquisition,” American Psychologist 20, no. 5 (1965): 321–333, and James O.Prochaska, Carlo C. Diclemente, and John C. Norcross, “In Search of How People Change:Applications to Addictive Behaviors,” American Psychologist 47, no. 9 (1992): 1102–1114. Acomprehensive review of documented programs intended to increase emotional intelligence was madeby the Consortium on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations, headed by Professor Cary Cherniss ofRutgers University. The review of these model programs and the Consortium’s view of the bestpractices are provided on their Web site and in a recent book: Cary Cherniss and Mitchell Adler,Promoting Emotional Intelligence in Organizations: Make Training in Emotional Intelligence Effective(Washington, DC: American Society for Training and Development, 2000).
- Description of the model of self-directed learning: Richard E. Boyatzis, “Self-Directed Changeand Learning as a Necessary Metacompetency for Success and Effectiveness in the 21st Century,” inKeys to Employee Success in the Coming Decades, eds. R. Sims and J. G. Veres (Westport, CT:Greenwood Publishing, 1999). See also Richard E. Boyatzis, “Developing Emotional Intelligence,” inThe Emotionally Intelligent Workplace: How to Select for, Measure, and Improve EmotionalIntelligence in Individuals, Groups, and Organizations, eds. Cary Cherniss and Daniel Goleman (SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass, 2001). This model describes the process as designed into the required courseimplemented in 1990 at the Weatherhead School of Management for the MBA program describedearlier and executive education programs.
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