需要有效的跟踪评估
我们的建议是:先针对培训内容建立考核标准,并且将员工的工作表现列入考核标准。最好是在培训前和培训后设立不同的考核标准,也要在培训后进行长达数月的跟踪评估,同时在评估期间可以对随机安排的各工作组进行适当的限制。当然,理想情况不容易实现,也可以选用一些备用评估方案,也可以比较一个人在受训领域和非受训领域的进步情况。不论采用何种评估方法,都可以根据评估结果调整培训课程。
可惜的是,这些简单的原则却很少有人去遵守,理论与现实之间有着很大差距。有一项针对《财富》500强公司的调查发现,人事主管大多认为评估培训成效就是为了考虑培训是否划算。可是,事实上,他们很少甚至根本不进行任何成效评估。[37]
人们最常使用的培训效果考评方法是请受训者填写学员评估表,通过表格看看他们是否有继续培训的必要。这更像是一般的民意调查,而不是对培训效果的评估。研究表明,学员评估报告的满意度与学员学到的能力或工作业绩的提高之间不存在联系。正如一篇评论指出的:“喜欢不等于就要学习。”[38]
评估的最佳方法是,客观测评培训前后学员的能力对工作业绩的影响。
但是没有一家公司在日常的评估中采用这样的方法。只有10%的公司在报告中说,偶尔采用了这种评估方式,其他许多对培训效果的评估都只关注人们的态度变化,而不是看他们实际业绩是否提高。
这种现象正在逐渐改变。最具前景的培训评估方案要数魏德海管理学院采用的方法了[39]。在该学院中,接受过管理技能培训的学员毕业后,学院仍对他们做进一步调查研究,以便了解他们受训后的能力能否对工作业绩产生积极的影响。这个安排预计在今后的50年内仍会持续。
- Strategic planning is a purely cognitive task: see, for example, Chris Argyris and S. A. Schon,Theory in Practice: Increasing Professional Effectiveness (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1974).
- Strategic planners need competence beyond intellect: David C. McClelland, “AssessingCompetencies Associated with Executive Success Through Behavioral Interviews,” unpublishedmanuscript, 1996.
- State-of-the-art methodology: the methods are detailed in several sources, e.g., Lyle M. Spencer Jr.and Signe M. Spencer, Competence at Work: Models for Superior Performance (New York: JohnWiley and Sons, 1993).
- Assessing competence models: see, for example, Spencer and Spencer, Competence at Work;David Dubois, Competency-Based Performance Improvement: A Strategy for Organizational Change(Amherst, MA: HRD Press, 1993).
- Flight attendant competence study: Spencer and Spencer, Competence at Work.
- Empathic accuracy for people very different from ourselves, like any other emotional competence,can be learned. We included training in reading feelings from faces of people from cultures that flightattendants were unfamiliar with. We also adapted the way empathy was approached to fit the cross-cultural realities of the job. The result: six months later, the attendants at a large overseas hub who hadhad the worst record of passenger complaints now had none.
- People are poor evaluators of their own level of empathy: Mark Davis and Linda Kraus,“Personality and Accurate Empathy,” in William Ickes (ed.), Empathic Accuracy (New York: GuilfordPress, 1997).
- One measure of the full spectrum of emotional intelligence capabilities I’ve co-developed is theEmotional Competence Inventory—360 (ECI-360), available from Emotional Intelligence Services,Sudbury, MA, 01776, email: EISGlobal@AOL.com.
- The Southwest health plan: in Mark R. Edwards and Ann J. Ewen, 360° Feedback (New York,AMACOM, 1996).
- Using 360-degree feedback as an emotional bludgeon: see, for example, “Performance ReviewInput by Peers Catches on at More Firms,” Los Angeles Times, April 17, 1997.
- The 20 percent rule is based on data from a wide range of behavior change programs, but itsconclusion seems apt for development and training in organizations. See James O. Prochaska et al.,Changing for Good (New York: Avon, 1994).
- Questions to gauge readiness: In Prochaska et al., Changing for Good.
- Motivation: Miguel Quinones, “Contextual Influences on Training Effectiveness,” in M. A.Quinones and A. Ehrenstein (eds.), Training for a Rapidly Changing Workforce: Applications ofPsychological Research (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1996).
- Windows of opportunity: Ellen Van Velsor and Christopher Musselwhite, “The Timing ofTraining, Learning, and Transfer,” Training and Development Journal, August 1986.
- Motivation and effectiveness of training: see, for example, Miguel Quinones, “Pretraining ContextEffects: Training Assignment as Feedback,” Journal of Applied Psychology 80 (1995).
- Adapting training to the individual: see, for example, Scott I. Tannenbaum and Gary Yukl,“Training and Development in Work Organizations,” Annual Review of Psychology 43 (1992).
- Boyatzis: Richard Boyatzis et al., Innovation in Professional Education: Steps on a Journey fromTeaching to Learning (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995).
- Break large goals into smaller goals: C. R. Snyder, The Psychology of Hope (New York: FreePress, 1993).
- Keep hopes high: Snyder, The Psychology of Hope.
- Possible selves: Hazel Markus and Peter Nurius, “Possible Selves,” American Psychologist 41(1989).
- The basic principles of relapse prevention are in Alan Marlatt and Judith Gordon (eds.), RelapsePrevention (New York: Guilford Press, 1985). The adaptation for organizational training anddevelopment is described in Robert D. Marx, “Relapse Prevention for Managerial Training: A Modelfor Maintenance of Behavior Change,” Academy of Management Review 7 (1982) and Robert D.Marx, “Improving Management Development Through Relapse Prevention Strategies,” Journal ofManagement Development 5 (1993).
- Positive feedback enhances self-confidence and transfer of skills to job: Quinones, “ContextualInfluences on Training Effectiveness.”
- Practice better when extended through time: F. N. Dempster, “The Spacing Effect: A Case Studyin the Failure to Apply the Results of Psychological Research,” American Psychologist 43 (1990).
- Power of practice: Lyle Spencer and Charley Morrow did the analysis of data, reported in LyleSpencer, “Competency Assessment Methods: what works; assessment development and measurement”(Hay/McBer, 1997).
- Overlearning: See, for example, Timothy T. Baldwin and J. Kevin Ford, “Transfer of Training,”Personnel Psychology 41 (1988).
- Much of the research on the benefits of longer periods of effort in behavior change has been doneby Kenneth Howard, a psychologist at Northwestern University. See, for example, Kenneth Howard etal., “The Dose-Effect Relationship in Psychotherapy,” American Psychologist 41 (1986); KennethHoward et al., “Evaluation of Psychotherapy,” American Psychologist 51 (1996).
- Kathy E. Kram, “A Relational Approach to Career Development,” in Douglas T. Hall andAssociates, The Career Is Dead—Long Live the Career (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996).
- Judith Jordan et al. (eds.), Women’s Growth in Connections (New York: Guilford Press, 1991). Asthe title suggests, the relational mode of mutual learning comes more readily to women than men (atleast in the United States).
- Buddy systems: see, for example, R. K. Fleming and B. Sulzer-Azaroff, “Peer Management:Effects on Staff Teaching Performance,” presented at the Fifteenth Annual Convention of theAssociation for Behavioral Analysis, Nashville, Tennessee, 1990. Cited in Tannenbaum and Yukl,“Training and Development.”
- Models: there is a rich documentation of the power of positive models in behavior change, datingfrom Albert Bandura’s pioneering work. See, for example, Albert Bandura, “Psychotherapy Based onModeling Principles” in A. E. Bergin and S. L. Garfield (eds.), Handbook of Psychotherapy andBehavior Change: An Empirical Analysis (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1971).
- Imitation focuses on high-status people: see, for example, H. M. Weiss, “Subordinate Imitation ofSupervisor Behavior: The Role of Modeling in Organizational Socialization,” Organizational Behaviorand Human Performance 19 (1977).
- Taking on bad habits of the high-status person: Charles C. Manz and Henry P. Sims, “BeyondImitation: Complex Behavioral and Affective Linkages Resulting from Exposure to LeadershipTraining Models,” Journal of Applied Psychology 71 (1986).
- The callous and compassionate aides: cited in Cary Cherniss, Beyond Burnout (New York:Routledge, 1995).
- Psychological safety: David Kolb and Richard Boyatzis, “Goal Setting and Self-directed BehaviorChange,” Human Relations 23, 1970.
- Supportive climate determines transfer: see, for example, Van Velsor and Musselwhite, “TheTiming of Training.”
- Banker’s Trust New York: reported in Business Week, October 20, 1997.
- Survey of training evaluation in Fortune 500 companies: William H. Clegg, “ManagementTraining Evaluation: An Update,” Training and Development Journal, February 1987.
- Liking does not imply learning: Tannenbaum and Yukl, “Training and Development.”
- The Weatherhead follow-up is under the direction of Richard Boyatzis.
本书评论