加强联系
2004年6月的一个早晨,一场大火袭击了穆德廊桥——宾夕法尼亚州巴克斯县一座古老的标志性建筑。当两个月后纵火犯被抓住的时候,当地社会都十分震惊。
这6个年轻人都是当地高中赫赫有名的毕业生,并且都来自“好”家庭。
人们感到不解和愤怒,整个社区都觉得受到了欺骗,觉得自己对于世界的美好印象都被打破了。
在审理6个纵火犯的过程中,其中一个男孩的父亲表达了对于陌生人在当地媒体上攻击自己和儿子的做法的愤怒。但是当被问到儿子的犯罪对他的影响时,他也承认,自己总是会想起这件事情以至夜不能寐,胸口就像堵了块儿大石头一样。最后他竟忍不住哭了起来。
听到自己家人和邻居痛苦的诉说,这些孩子也深感懊悔。他们向大家道歉,说自己真希望一切能够重来。[21]
这次审判是“帮教审判”的一次演练。“帮教审判”认为,除了惩罚之外,罪犯还应该直面自己的罪行给他人带来的情感创伤,并且尽自己可能去弥补。[22]卡拉马祖模式在所有预防犯罪的有效措施中特别重视这种帮教审判。
在这种审判中,仲裁者经常会安排一些形式使得犯人能够在一定程度上弥补自己所犯下的罪行,比如通过经济补偿,或者从受害者的角度反思罪行,再或者真心实意地道歉。加利福尼亚一家监狱中该计划的负责人曾经说过,“关于受害者创伤的审判会议是非常能够触动罪犯情绪的。
对于许多犯人来说,这是他们第一次真正考虑受害者的感受并且反思自己犯下的罪行”。
艾马科·E.华盛顿(Emarco Washington)就接受过这种审判。他在十几岁的时候便开始吸食可卡因,并且通过抢劫来维持这一嗜好。如果母亲不给他钱买可卡因,他就会虐待、辱骂她。从十几岁到三十岁,他几乎每年都会进监狱。[23]
在旧金山监狱接受了帮教审判和削减暴力倾向的培训之后,华盛顿在出狱的时候做了一件出人意料的事情:他打电话给母亲并向她道歉。“我告诉她,原来当她不给我钱的时候我的确感到十分气愤,但是伤害她真的不是我的本意。打完电话之后我有一种重生的感觉,这告诉我,如果我改变自己的行为、语言,那么我就可以向自己和别人证明我并不是一个彻头彻尾的坏蛋。”
帮教审判所带来的情感变化会督促犯人们从对待受害者的“我和它”的态度转化为同理心。少年犯的许多罪行都是在醉酒或者吸毒后犯下的,因此他们根本就意识不到受害者的存在,而且当时他们的大脑中也没有任何伤害别人需要负责任的意识。通过使犯人产生对于受害者的同理心,帮教审判的这种方式很可能会改变犯人今后的生活。
卡拉马祖模式还为我们指出了犯人转变的另外一个关键点,那就是少年犯出狱回家的时候,如果没有外力干预,他们很容易回到原来的朋友圈子中,重新恢复原来的恶习,因此就很有可能再次入狱。
在预防再次犯罪的众多方法中,全方位疗法的效果最为明显。[24] “疗法”在这里可能并不十分恰当,因为这种治疗并不是指导者和犯人进行的一对一的长时间交流。相反,这种干预是贯穿整个生活的,比如在家里、大街上、学校里或者出狱犯人可能会到的任何其他地方,接触到的任何人。
例如,有位顾问跟踪调查了一名被释放的犯人,竭力想了解他出狱后的个人生活。这位顾问首先在犯人的社交圈中寻找积极因素,比如可以成为他益友的朋友,可以成为他良师的叔叔,或者可以给他带来温暖感觉的教堂等。然后这位顾问要确保使他亲近这些可以给他带来帮助的人,远离那些会误导他的人。
这种方法其实很简单,就是要增强他们的纪律性和对家人的关爱、减少与狐朋狗友的交往时间、在学校努力学习或者找一份工作并且积极参与体育活动等。最重要的是,建立一个健康的人际关系网络,使得出狱的犯人与那些关心他们并且能够为他们树立行为典范的人交往。这些人可以是他们的家人、邻居,也可以是朋友。[25]
尽管这次的全方位疗法只持续了4个月,但是它的确取得了一些效果。
经历过这种治疗的少年犯出狱后三年内再次犯罪的概率在各个地区都出现了25%到70%的下降。而且更引人注意的是,那些最为顽固、最难以相处并且犯下严重罪行的犯人的行为也会因此而出现改观。
政府对于服刑犯人年龄的一项统计指出,监狱中数量增长最快的是中年人,而且他们一般都已经有过数年的犯罪史。[26]从年轻时第一次被逮捕开始,他们中的大部分人就已经走上了不归路。
第一次入狱是改造犯人的黄金机会,是帮助他们摆脱今后犯罪可能性的关键时期。这一时期十分重要,它决定了少年犯们今后是远离监狱还是屡次光顾。
如果我们能够采纳诸如重塑社交脑等有效的计划,就可以实现犯人与社会的双赢。当然,卡拉马祖等模式所倡导的方式不止这些,这种“有效机制”还包括文化知识的学习、找到一份可以维持生计的工作和对自己的行为负责等。但是所有的这些方式都有一个共同的目的:帮助犯人转变为好人,而不是越来越高明的罪犯。
- Former superintendent John Tindall, as quoted in 1949 by the St. Louis Dispatch in a report by theAnnie E. Casey Foundation, Small Is Beautiful (Missouri Division of Youth Services, 2003). Myaccount of the Missouri system is based on that report.
- On recidivism rates, see ibid. However, comparisons across states should be viewed with caution;they may not reflect identical measures. A better comparison would include all states, tracking in theidentical way those released. Such data do not yet exist.
- On prefrontal damage, see Adriane Raine et al., “Brain Abnormalities in Murderers Indicated byPositron Emission Tomography,” Biological Psychiatry 42 (1997), pp. 495–508.
- Adriane Raine et al., “Reduced Prefrontal Gray Matter Volume and Reduced Autonomic Activity inAntisocial Personality Disorder,” Archives of General Psychiatry 57 (2000), pp. 119–27. Many violentpeople have atrophy in the amygdala; see R. J. Davidson, K. M. Putnam, C. L. Larson, “Dysfunction inthe Neural Circuitry of Emotion Regulation—A Possible Prelude to Violence,” Science 289 (2000), pp.591–94.
- On prefrontal lobe and cognitive control, see E. K. Miller and J. D. Cohen, “An Integrative Theoryof Prefrontal Cortex Function,” Annual Review of Neuroscience 24 (2001), pp. 167–202.
- This neurological timeline was the basis for a 2005 Supreme Court decision against allowing theexecution of juveniles, because young brains have not matured to the point that their decision-makingand impulse-control abilities are at levels of adults.
- Nationally, the annual cost of this vast prison system surpassed $60 billion in 2002. On the prisonpopulation, see Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice, Nov. 2005.
- On costs and recidivism rates, see Patrick Langer and David Levin, “Recidivism of PrisonersReleased in 1994,” report from the Bureau of Justice Statistics, NCJ 193427, (Jun. 2002).
- Kalamazoo County Coalition on Criminal Justice, “A Plan for Integrating Prevention, Intervention,Corrections, and Reintegration Programs in the Kalamazoo County Criminal Justice System,”September 15, 2004.
- On connectedness and crime, see Dr. Felton Earls, interview by Dan Hurley, “On Crime asScience (A Neighbor at a Time),” New York Times, January 6, 2004, p. C1.
- On analysis of neighborhoods, see Robert J. Sampson et al., “Neighborhoods and Violent Crime:A Multi-level study of Collective Efficacy,” Science 277 (1997), pp. 918–24.
- The creation of greater cohesiveness is a social experiment waiting to be done well.
- Nancy Guerra and Ronald Slaby, “Cognitive Mediators of Aggression in Adolescent Offenders: 2.Intervention,” Developmental Psychology 26 (1990), pp. 269–77.
- On younger inmates, see “Childhood on Trial: The Failure of Trying and Sentencing Youth inAdult Criminal Court,” Coalition for Juvenile Justice, 2005 Annual Report.
- These circuits remain somewhat malleable throughout life; if a person of any age has themotivation to learn, they still can do so with some success, given the proper model of learning. Butafter this window has closed in the twenties, it takes far more effort and time to shape them—and sorequires that the person be more highly motivated and be given more personalized help. For the aptmodel of learning, see Part Two in Daniel Goleman et al., Primal Leadership (Boston: HarvardBusiness School Press, 2002). See also “Best Practices” at www.eiconsortium.org.
- On rehab in prison, see James McGuire, ed., What Works: Reducing Reoffending (New York:John Wiley, 1995); James McGuire, Offender Rehabilitation and Treatment (New York: John Wiley,2002).
- On programs in social and emotional learning, see www.casel.org.
- On lower rates, see Wendy Garrard, “Does Conflict Resolution Education Reduce AntisocialBehavior in Schools? The Evidence Says Yes,” presented at the annual meeting of the OhioCommission on Dispute Resolution and Conflict Management, Columbus, Ohio, November 2005.
- The National Emotional Literacy Project for Youth-at-Risk is one pilot program that adapts social-emotional abilities to young prison populations (www.lionheart.org). Another pilot program teachessocial intelligence skills to youth offenders in Connecticut prisons—for example, they learn bettersocial problemsolving skills and ways to disengage from anger. See Zak Stambor, “Can TeachingTroubled Teens Social Problem-solving Keep Them Out of Trouble?” Monitor on Psychology(December 2005), pp. 90–91.
- On highest recidivism among youngest prisoners, and those with the longer records, see Bureau ofJustice Statistics, 2005.
- On the Bucks County meeting, see Laura Mirsky, “Directing Burning Bridges, a DocumentaryAbout a Restorative Conference,” at www.realjustice.org.
- On restorative justice, see Gerry Johnstone, Restorative Justice (London: Willan Publishers, 2001).
- See Kathleen Kenna, “Justice for All,” Great Good (Spring/Summer 2005).
- On recidivism in multisystemic therapy, see C. M. Boruin et al., “Multisystemic Treatment ofSerious Juvenile Offenders: Long-term Prevention of Criminality and Violence,” Journal of Consultingand Clinical Psychology 63 (1995), pp. 569–78.
- ibid.
- On age of prisoners, see Paige Harrison and Alan J. Beck, “Prisoners in 2003,” Bulletin, Bureau ofJustice Statistics, Washington, D.C., November 2004.
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