Alvin Toffler,Future Shock (New York: Random House, 1970), 26.
“Chronology: Reuters, from Pigeons to MultimediaMerger,”Reuters,February 19, 2008, accessed October 27, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/02/19/us-reuters-thomson-chronology-idUSL1849100620080219.
Toffler,Future Shock, 13.
Albert Einstein,Einstein's Essays in Science (New York: WisdomLibrary,1934), 112.
2. 好奇心
Maureen A. O'Leary et al., “The Placental Mammal Ancestor and thePost–K-Pg Radiation of Placentals,”Science 339 (February 8, 2013): 662–67.
Julian Jaynes,The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of theBicameralMind (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976), 9.
For the story of Lucy and her significance, see Donald C. Johanson,Lucys'Legacy (New York: Three Rivers Press, 2009). See alsoDouglas S. Massey,“A Brief History of Human Society: The Origin and Roleof Emotion in Social Life,”American Sociological Review 67 (2002): 1–29.
B. A. Wood, “Evolution of Australopithecines,” inTheCambridgeEncyclopedia of Human Evolution, ed. Stephen Jones, Robert D. Martin, andDavid R. Pilbeam (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1994), 239.
Carol. V. Ward et al., “Complete Fourth Metatarsal and Arches in theFoot ofAustralopithecus afarensis,”Science 331 (February 11, 2011): 750–53.
4 × 106 years ago = 2 × 105 generations; 2 × 105 houses × 100-foot-wide lot foreach house ÷ 5,000 feet per mile = 4,000 miles.
James E. McClellan III and Harold Dorn,Science and Technology inWorld History, 2nd ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006),6–7.
Javier DeFelipe, “The Evolution of the Brain, the Human Nature ofCorticalCircuits, and Intellectual Creativity,”Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 5(May2011): 1–17.
Stanley H. Ambrose, “Paleolothic Technology and HumanEvolution,”Science291 (March 2, 2001): 1748–53.
“What Does It Mean to Be Human?” Smithsonian Museum ofNaturalHistory, accessed October 27, 2014, www .humanorigins.si.edu.
Johann De Smedt et al., “Why the Human Brain Is Not an EnlargedChimpanzee Brain,” inHuman Characteristics: Evolutionary Perspectives onHuman Mind and Kind, ed. H. Høgh-Olesen, J. Tønnesvang, and P. Bertelsen(Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars, 2009), 168–81.
Ambrose, “Paleolothic Technology and Human Evolution,” 1748–53.
R. Peeters et al., “The Representation of Tool Use in Humans andMonkeys:Common and Uniquely Human Features,”Journal of Neuroscience29(September 16, 2009): 11523–39; Scott H. Johnson-Frey, “The NeuralBases of Complex Tool Use in Humans,”TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences 8(February 2004): 71–78.
Richard P. Cooper, “Tool Use and Related Errors in IdeationalApraxia: The Quantitative Simulation of Patient Error Profiles,”Cortex 43(2007): 319;Johnson-Frey, “The Neural Bases,” 71–78.
Johanson,Lucy's Legacy, 192–93.
Ibid., 267.
András Takács-Sánta, “The Major Transitions in the History ofHuman Transformation of the Biosphere,”Human Ecology Review 11(2004):51–77. Some researchers believe that modern human behavioremerged first earlier, in Africa, and then was brought to Europe in a “secondout-of-Africa”migration. See, for example, David Lewis-Williams and DavidPearce,Inside the Neolithic Mind (London: Thames and Hudson, 2005), 18;Johanson,Lucy's Legacy, 257–62.
Robin I. M. Dunbar and Suzanne Shultz, “Evolution in the SocialBrain,”Science 317 (September 7, 2007): 1344–47.
Christopher Boesch and Michael Tomasello, “Chimpanzee andHuman Cultures,”Current Anthropology 39 (1998): 591–614.
Lewis Wolpert, “Causal Belief and the Origins ofTechnology,”Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 361 (2003):
–19.
Daniel J. Povinelli and Sarah Dunphy-Lelii, “Do Chimpanzees SeekExplanations? Preliminary Comparative Investigations,”Canadian Journal ofExperimental Psychology 55 (2001): 185–93.
Frank Lorimer,The Growth of Reason (London: K. Paul, 1929);quoted in Arthur Koestler,The Act of Creation (London: Penguin, 1964), 616.
Dwight L. Bolinger, ed.,Intonation: Selected Readings. (Harmondsworth,U.K.: Penguin, 1972), 314; Alan Cruttenden,Intonation(Cambridge, U.K.:Cambridge University Press, 1986), 169–17.
Laura Kotovsky and Renee Baillargeon, “The Development ofCalibrationBased Reasoning About Collision Events in YoungInfants,”Cognition 67(1998): 313–51.
3. 文化
James E. McClellan III and Harold Dorn,Science and Technology inWorldHistory, 2nd ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006), 9–12.
Many of these developments had had precursors among older nomadicgroups,but the technologies did not flourish, for the products did not fit thewanderinlifestyle. See McClellan and Dorn, –Science and Technology, 2021.
Jacob L. Weisdorf, “From Foraging to Farming: Explaining theNeolithicRevolution,”Journal of Economic Surveys 19 (2005): 562–86; ElifBatuman,“The Sanctuary,”New Yorker, December 19, 2011, 72–83.
Marshall Sahlins,Stone Age Economics (New York: Aldine Atherton,1972),1–39.
Ibid., 21–22.
Andrew Curry, “Seeking the Roots of Ritual,”Science 319 (January18,2008): 278–80; Andrew Curry, “Gobekli Tepe: The World's FirstTemple?,”Smithsonian Magazine, November 2008, accessed November 7,2014, http: //www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/gobekli-tepe.html; CharlesC. Mann, “The Birth of Religion,” –National Geographic,June 2011, 3459;Batuman, “The Sanctuary.”
Batuman, “The Sanctuary.”
Michael Balter, “Why Settle Down? The Mystery ofCommunities,”Science20 (November 1998): 1442–46.
Curry, “Gobekli Tepe.”
McClellan and Dorn,Science and Technology, 17–22.
Balter, “Why Settle Down?,” 1442–46.
Marc Van De Mieroop,A History of the Ancient Near East (Malden,Mass.:Blackwell, 2007), 21. See also Balter, “Why Settle Down?,” 1442–46.
Balter, “Why Settle Down?,” 1442–46; David Lewis-Williams andDavid Pearce,Inside the Neolithic Mind (London: Thames and Hudson,2005),77–78.
Ian Hodder, “Women and Men at Çatalhöyük,”Scientific American,January 2004, 81.
Ian Hodder, “Çatalhöyük in the Context of the Middle EasternNeolithic,”Annual Review of Anthropology 36 (2007): 105–20.
Anil K. Gupta, “Origin of Agriculture and Domestication of Plantsand Animals Linked to Early Holocene Climate Amelioration,”CurrentScience87 (July 10, 2004); Van De Mieroop,History of the Ancient NearEast, 11.
L. D. Mlodinow and N. Papanicolaou, “SO (2, 1) Algebra and theLarge N Expansion in Quantum Mechanics,”Annals of Physics 128(1980):314–34; L. D. Mlodinow and N. Papanicolaou, “Pseudo-SpinStructure and Large N Expansion for a Class of Generalized HeliumHamiltonians,”Annals of Physics 131 (1981): 1–35; Carl Bender, L. D. Mlodinow, and N.Papanicolaou, “Semiclassical Perturbation Theory for theHydrogen Atom in a Uniform Magnetic Field,”Physical Review A 25 (1982):
–14.
Jean Durup, “On the 1986 Nobel Prize in Chemistry,”LaserChemistry 7(1987): 239–59. See also D. J. Doren and D. R. Herschbach,“Accurate Semiclassical Electronic Structure from DimensionalSingularities,”Chemical Physics Letters 118 (1985): 115–19; J. G. Loeser andD. R.Herschbach, “Dimensional Interpolation of Correlation Energy forTwoElectron Atoms,”Journal of Physical Chemistry 89 (1985): 3444–47.
Andrew Carnegie,James Watt (New York: Double-day, 1933), 45–64.
T. S. Eliot,The Sacred Wood and Major Early Essays (New York: DoverPublications, 1997), 72. First published in 1920.
Gergely Csibra and György Gergely, “Social Learning andCognition: The Case for Pedagogy,” inProcesses in Brain and CognitiveDevelopment, ed.Y. Munakata and M. H. Johnson (Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press, 2006):249–74.
Christophe Boesch, “From Material to Symbolic Cultures: Culture inPrimates,” inThe Oxford Handbook of Culture and Psychology, ed. JuanValsiner (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 677–92. See alsoSharonBegley, “Culture Club,”Newsweek, March 26, 2001, 48–50.
Boesch, “From Material to Symbolic Cultures.” See also Begley,“Culture Club”; Bennett G. Galef Jr., “Tradition in Animals: FieldObservations and Laboratory Analyses,” inInterpretation and Explanation inthe Study of Animal Behavior,ed. Marc Bekoff and Dale Jamieson (Oxford: Westview Press, 1990).
Boesch, “From Material to Symbolic Cultures.” See also Begley,“Culture Club.”
Heather Pringle, “The Origins of Creativity,”Scientific American,March 2013, 37–43.
Michael Tomasello,The Cultural Origins of Human Cognition(Cambridge,Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001), 5–6, 36–41.
Fiona Coward and Matt Grove, “Beyond the Tools: Social Innovationand Hominin Evolution,”PaleoAnthropology (special issue, 2011): 111–29.
Jon Gertner,The Idea Factory: Bell Labs and the Great Age ofAmerican Knowledge (New York: Penguin, 2012), 41–42.
Pringle, “Origins of Creativity,” 37–43.
4. 文明
Robert Burton, inThe Anatomy of Melancholy (1621); George Herbert,inJacula Prudentum (1651); William Hicks, inRevelation Revealed(1659);Shnayer Z. Leiman, “Dwarfs on the Shoulders of Giants,”Tradition,Spring1993. Use of the phrase actually seems to go all the way back to thetwelfthcentury.
Marc Van De Mieroop,A History of the Ancient Near East (Malden,Mass.:Blackwell, 2007), 21–23.
Ibid., 12–13, 23.
Some scholars estimate the population as high as 200,000. Forexample, seeJames E. McClellan III and Harold Dorn,Science andTechnology in WorldHistory, 2nd ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UniversityPress, 2006), 33.
Van De Mieroop,History of the Ancient Near East, 24–29.
McClellan and Dorn,Science and Technology in World History, 41–42.
David W. Anthony,The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: HowBronze-AgeRiders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World(Princeton, N.J.:Princeton University Press, 2010), 61.
Van De Mieroop,History of the Ancient Near East, 26.
Marc Van De Mieroop,The Ancient Mesopotamian City (Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press, 1997), 46–48.
Van De Mieroop,History of the Ancient Near East, 24, 27.
Elizabeth Hess,Nim Chimpsky (New York: Bantam Books, 2008),240–41.
Susana Duncan, “Nim Chimpsky and How He Grew,”New York,December 3,1979, 84. See also Hess,Nim Chimpsky,22.
T. K. Derry and Trevor I. Williams,A Short History of Technology(Oxford:Oxford University Press: 1961), 214–15.
Steven Pinker,The Language Instinct: How the Mind CreatesLanguage (NewYork: Harper Perennial, 1995), 26.
Georges Jean,Writing: The Story of Alphabets and Scripts (NewYork:Henry N. Abrams, 1992), 69.
Jared Diamond,Guns, Germs and Steel (New York: W. W. Norton,1997), 60,218. Regarding the New World, see María del Carmen RodríguezMartinez et al., “Oldest Writing in the New World,”Science 313 (September15,2006): 1610–14; John Noble Wilford, “Writing May Be Oldest in WesternHemisphere,”New York Times, September 15, 2006. These describe a blockwith a hitherto unknown system of writing that has recently been found in theOlmec heartland of Veracruz, Mexico. Stylistic and other dating of the blockplaces it in the early first millennium b.c., the oldest writing in the NewWorld, with features that firmly assign this pivotal development to the Olmeccivilization of Mesoamerica.
Patrick Feaster, “Speech Acoustics and the Keyboard Telephone: Rethinking Edison's Discovery of the Phonograph Principle,”ARSC Journal38, no. 1(Spring 2007): 10–43; Diamond,Guns, Germs and Steel, 243.
Jean,Writing: The Story of Alphabets, 12–13.
Van De Mieroop,History of the Ancient Near East, 30–31.
Ibid., 30; McClellan and Dorn,Science and Technology in WorldHistory, 49.
Jean,Writing: The Story of Alphabets, 14.
Derry and Williams,A Short History of Technology, 215.
Stephen Bertman,Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia (NewYork:Facts on File, 2003), 148, 301.
McClellan and Dorn,Science and Technology in World History, 47;AlbertineGaur,A History of Writing (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons,1984), 150.
Sebnem Arsu, “The Oldest Line in the World,”New York Times,February 14,2006, 1.
Andrew Robinson,The Story of Writing (London: Thames andHudson,1995), 162–67.
Derry and Williams,A Short History of Technology, 216.
Saint Augustine,De Genesi ad Litteram (The Literal Meaning ofGenesis),completed in a.d. 415.
Morris Kline,Mathematics in Western Culture (Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press, 1952), 11.
Ann Wakeley et al., “Can Young Infants Add and Subtract?,”ChildDevelopment 71 (November–December 2000): 1525–34.
Morris Kline,Mathematical Thought from the Ancient to ModernTimes, vol.1 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972), 184– 86, 259–60.
Kline,Mathematical Thought, 19–21.
Roger Newton,From Clockwork to Crapshoot (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press, 2007), 6.
Edgar Zilsel, “The Genesis of the Concept of Physical Law,”ThePhilosophical Review 3, no. 51 (May 1942): 247.
Robert Wright,The Evolution of God (New York: Little, Brown,2009),71–89.
Joseph Needham, “Human Laws and the Laws of Nature in Chinaand the West, Part I,”Journal of the History of Ideas 12 ( January 1951): 18.
Wright,Evolution of God, 87–88.
“Code of Hammurabi, c. 1780 BCE,” Internet Ancient HistorySourcebook,Fordham University, March 1998, accessed October 27, 2014,http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/hamcode.asp; “Law Code ofHammurabi, King of Babylon,” Department of Near Eastern Antiquities: Mesopotamia, the Louvre,accessed October 27, 2014,http://www.louvre.fr/en /oeuvre-notices/law-codehammurabi-king-babylon;Mary Warner Marien and William Fleming,Fleming's Arts and Ideas(Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005), 8.
Needham, “Human Laws and the Laws of Nature,” 3–30.
Zilsel, “The Genesis of the Concept of Physical Law,” 249.
Ibid.
Ibid., 265–67.
Ibid., 279.
Albert Einstein,Autobiographical Notes (Chicago: Open CourtPublishing,1979), 3–5.
5. 推理
Daniel C. Snell,Life in the Ancient Near East (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997), 140–41.
A. A. Long, “The Scope of Early Greek Philosophy,” inTheCambridgeCompanion to Early Greek Philosophy, ed. A. A. Long(Cambridge, U.K.:Cambridge University Press, 1999).
Albert Einstein to Maurice Solovine, March 30, 1952,Letters toSolovine (NewYork: Philosophical Library, 1987), 117.
Albert Einstein, “Physics and Reality” inIdeas and Opinions, trans. SonjaBargmann (New York: Bonanza, 1954), 292.
Will Durant,The Life of Greece (New York: Simon and Schuster,1939),134–40; James E. McClellan III and Harold Dorn,Science andTechnology inWorld History, 2nd ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UniversityPress, 2006),56–59.
Adelaide Glynn Dunham,The History of Miletus: Down to theAnabasis ofAlexander (London: University of London Press, 1915).
Durant,The Life of Greece, 136–37.
Rainer Maria Rilke,Letters to a Young Poet (1929; New York: Dover,2002),21.
Durant,The Life of Greece, 161–66; Peter Gorman,Pythagoras: ALife(London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979).
Carl Huffman, “Pythagoras,” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,Fall 2011,accessed October 28, 2014, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pythagoras.
McClellan and Dorn,Science and Technology, 73–76.
Daniel Boorstin,The Seekers (New York: Vintage, 1998), 54.
Ibid., 316.
Ibid., 55.
Ibid.
Ibid., 48.
See George J. Romanes, “Aristotle as a Naturalist,”Science 17(March 6,1891): 128–33.
Boorstin,The Seekers, 47.
“Aristotle,” The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, accessedNovember 7,2014, http://www.iep.utm.edu.
6. 新的推理方式
Morris Kline,Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times,vol. 1(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972), 179.
Kline,Mathematical Thought, 204; J. D. Bernal,Science in History,vol. 1(Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1971), 254.
Kline,Mathematical Thought, 211.
David C. Lindberg,The Beginnings of Western Science: TheEuropeanScientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and InstitutionalContext, 600B.C. to A.D. 1450 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992),180–81.
Toby E. Huff,The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, andthe West(Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 74.
Ibid., 77, 89. Huff and George Saliba disagree on the origin and natureofIslamic science, especially the role of astronomy, which has led to aproductiveand stimulating discussion in the field. For more on Saliba'sargument, see hisIslamic Science and the Making of the EuropeanRenaissance (Cambridge,Mass.: MIT Press, 2007).
For more on the situation, see Huff,Rise of Early Modern Science,276–78.
Bernal,Science in History, 334.
Lindberg,Beginnings of Western Science, 203–5.
J. H. Parry,Age of Reconnaissance: Discovery, Exploration, andSettlement,1450–1650 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982). Seeespecially Part 1.
Huff,Rise of Early Modern Science, 187.
Lindberg,Beginnings of Western Science, 206–8.
Huff,Rise of Early Modern Science, 92.
John Searle,Mind, Language, and Society: Philosophy in the RealWorld (NewYork: Basic Books, 1999),15. For more on fourteenth-century conditions, see Robert S. Gottfried,The Black Death (New York: Free Press, 1985), 29.
For a sweeping and readable examination of the history of theconcept of time, see David Landes,Revolution in Time: Clocks and theMaking of the Modern World (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of theHarvard University Press, 1983).
Lindberg,Beginnings of Western Science, 303–4.
Clifford Truesdell, Essays in the History of Mechanics (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1968).
Albert Einstein, in a letter dated January 7, 1943, quoted in HelenDukas and Banesh Hoffman,Albert Einstein: The Human Side; New Glimpsesfrom His Archives (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979), 8.
Galileo Galilei,Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo (New York: Doubleday,1957), 237–38.
Henry Petroski,The Evolution of Useful Things (New York: Knopf,1992),84–86.
James E. McClellan III and Harold Dorn,Science and Technology inWorld History, 2nd ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006),180–82.
Elizabeth Eisenstein,The Printing Press as an Agent of Change(Cambridge,U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 46.
Louis Karpinski,The History of Arithmetic (New York: Russell andRussell,1965), 68–71; Philip Gaskell,A New Introduction to Bibliography(Oxford,U.K.: Clarendon Press, 1972), 251–65.
Bernal,Science in History, 334–35.
My discussion of Galileo's life draws heavily from J. L. Heilbron,Galileo(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), and from StillmanDrake, Galileo at Work (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978).
Heilbron,Galileo, 61.
Galileo may have been suffering from multiple disenchantments. William A. Wallace argues in hisGalileo, the Jesuits, and the MedievalAristotle(Burlington, Vt.: Variorum, 1991) that Galileo, in preparation for histenure at Pisa, actually appropriated much of his material from lectures givenby Jesuits at the Colegio Romano between 1588 and 1590. Wallace also has achapter called “Galileo's Jesuit Connections and Their Influence on HisScience” in Mordechai Feingold's collectionJesuit Science and the Republicof Letters (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2002).
Bernal,Science in History, 429.
G. B. Riccioli,Almagestum novum astronomiam (1652), vol. 2,384;Christopher Graney, “Anatomy of a Fall: Giovanni Battista Riccioli andthe Story of G,”Physics Today (September 2012): 36.
Laura Fermi and Gilberto Bernardini,Galileo and the ScientificRevolution(New York: Basic Books, 1961), 125.
Richard Westfall,Force in Newton's Physics (New York: MacDonald, 1971),1–4. In reality, Jean Buridan, who had been Oresme'steacher in Paris, had stated a similar law within the framework of the Mertonscholars, thoughnot nearly as clearly as Galileo. See John Freely,BeforeGalileo: The Birth of Modern Science in Medieval Europe (New York: Overlook Duckworth,2012), 162–63.
Westfall,Force in Newton's Physics, 41–42.
Bernal,Science in History, 406–10; McClellan and Dorn,Science andTechnology, 208–14.
Bernal,Science in History, 408.
Daniel Boorstin,The Discoverers (New York: Vintage, 1983), 314.
Freely,Before Galileo, 272.
Heilbron,Galileo, 217–20; Drake, Galileo at Work, 252–56.
Heilbron,Galileo, 311.
William A. Wallace, “Gallieo's Jesuit Connections and TheirInfluence on His Science,” in Mordechai Feingold, ed.,Jesuit Science and theRepublic of Letters (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2002), 99–112.
Károly Simonyi,A Cultural History of Physics (Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press,2012), 198–99.
Heilbron,Galileo, 356.
Ibid.
Drake, Galileo at Work, 436.
7. 力学宇宙
Pierre Simon Laplace,Théorie Analytique des Probabilities (Paris: Ve.Courcier, 1812).
To understand Sir Isaac Newton in the context of upheaval inseventeenth-century England, see Christopher Hill,The World Turned UpsideDown:Radical Ideas During the English Revolution (New York: PenguinHistory,1984), 290–97.
Richard S. Westfall,Never at Rest (Cambridge, U.K.: CambridgeUniversityPress, 1980), 863. This isthe authoritative biography of Newton,and I haverelied on it accordingly.
Ming-Te Wang et al., “Not Lack of Ability but More Choice: Individual andGender Differences in Choice of Careers in Science,Technology, Engineering,and Mathematics,”Psychological Science 24 (May2013): 770–75.
Albert Einstein, “Principles of Research,” address to the PhysicalSociety,Berlin, in Albert Einstein,Essays in Science (New York: Philosophical Library,1934), 2.
Westfall,Never at Rest, ix.
W. H. Newton-Smith, “Science, Rationality, and Newton,” in MarciaSweetSt d ayer,e.,Newton's Dream (Montreal: McGill University Press,1988), 31.
Westfall,Never at Rest, 53.
Ibid., 65.
Ibid., 155.
William H. Cropper,Great Physicists: The Life and Times ofLeadingPhysicists from Galileo to Hawking (New York: Oxford UniversityPress,2004), 252.
Westfall,Never at Rest, 70–71, 176–79.
Richard Westfall,The Life of Isaac Newton (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 71, 77–81.
See the chapter “A Private Scholar & Public Servant,” in “Footprintsof the Lion: Isaac Newton at Work,” Cambridge University Library —Newton Exhibition, accessed October 28, 2014, www.lib.cam.ac.uk/exhibitions/Footprints_of_the_Lion/private_scholar.html.
W. H. Newton-Smith, “Science, Rationality, and Newton,” inNewton's Dream, ed. Marcia Sweet Stayer (Montreal: McGill UniversityPress, 1988),31–33.
Richard S. Westfall,Never at Rest, 321–24, 816–17.
Paul Strathern,Mendeleev's Dream (New York: Berkley Books,2000), 32.
Westfall,Never at Rest, 368.
I wrote a memoir about that period in my life; see LeonardMlodinow,Feynman's Rainbow: A Search for Beauty in Physics and in Life(New York:Vintage, 2011).
Newton-Smith, “Science, Rationality, and Newton,” 32–33.
Westfall,Never at Rest, 407.
Ibid., 405.
Richard Westfall,Force in Newton's Physics (New York: MacDonald, 1971),463.
As measured in “Parisian feet,” which are 1.0568 of the usual feet.
Robert S. Westfall, “Newton and the Fudge Factor,”Science 179(February 23, 1973): 751–58.
Murray Allen et al., “The Accelerations of Daily Living,”Spine(November 1994): 1285–90.
Francis Bacon,The New Organon: The First Book, inThe Works ofFrancis Bacon, ed. James Spedding and Robert Leslie Ellis (London: Longman,1857–70), accessed November 7, 2014, http://www.bartleby.com/242/.
R. J. Boscovich,Theiria Philosophiae Naturalis (Venice, 1763),reprinted asA Theory of Natural Philosophy (Chicago: Open CourtPublishing, 1922), 281.
Westfall,Life of Isaac Newton, 193.
Michael White,Rivals: Conflict as the Fuel of Science (London: Vintage,2002), 40–45.
Ibid.
Westfall,Never at Rest, 645.
Daniel Boorstin,The Discoverers (New York: Vintage, 1983), 411.
Westfall,Never at Rest, 870.
John Emsley,The Elements of Murder: A History of Poison (Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press, 2006), 14.
J. L. Heilbron,Galileo (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 360.
“Sir Isaac Newton,” Westminster Abbey, accessed October 28, 2014,www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people /sir-isaac-newton.
8. 物质的构成
Joseph Tenenbaum,The Story of a People (New York: PhilosophicalLibrary,1952), 195.
Paul Strathern,Mendeleev's Dream (New York: Berkley Books, 2000),195–98.
From an interview I taped with my father, c. 1980. I have many hoursof thoseinterviews and have used them as a source for the stories I tell here.
J. R. Partington,A Short History of Chemistry, 3rd. ed. (London: Macmillan,1957), 14.
Rick Curkeet, “Wood Combustion Basics,” EPA Workshop, March2,2011, accessed October 28, 2014,www.epa.gov/burnwise/workshop2011/WoodCombustion-Curkeet.pdf.
Robert Barnes, “Cloistered Bookworms in the Chicken-Coop of theMuses:The Ancient Library of Alexandria,” in Roy MacLeod, ed.,TheLibrary atAlexandria: Centre of Learning in the Ancient World (New York: I. B. Tauris,2005), 73.
Henry M. Pachter,Magic into Science: The Story of Paracelsus (NewYork:Henry Schuman, 1951), 167.
The definitive biography of Boyle is Louis Trenchard More,The LifeandWorks of the Honorable Robert Boyle (London: Oxford UniversityPress,1944). See also William H. Brock,The Norton History of Chemistry(NewYork: W. W. Norton, 1992), 54–74.
More,Life and Works, 45, 48.
Boyle observed: Brock,Norton History of Chemistry, 56–58.
J. D. Bernal,Science in History, vol. 2 (Cambridge, Mass.: MITPress, 1971),462.
T. V. Venkateswaran, “Discovery of Oxygen: Birth of ModernChemistry,”Science Reporter 48 (April 2011): 34–39.
Isabel Rivers and David L. Wykes, eds.,Joseph Priest-ley,Scientist,Philosopher, and Theologian (Oxford: Oxford University Press,2008), 33.
Charles W. J. Withers,Placing the Enlightenment: ThinkingGeographically About the Age of Reason (Chicago: University of ChicagoPress, 2007), 2–6.
J. Priestley, “Observations on Different Kinds of Air,”PhilosophicalTransactions of the Royal Society 62 (1772): 147–264.
For the life of Lavoisier, see Arthur Donovan,Antoine Lavoisier(Oxford:Blackwell, 1993).
Isaac Newton,Opticks, ed. Bernard Cohen (London, 1730; NewYork: Dover,1952), 394. Newton first publishedOpticks in 1704, but his finalthoughts on the matter are represented by the fourth edition, the last revisedby Newton himself, which came out in 1730.
Donovan,Antoine Lavoisier, 47–49.
Ibid., 139. See also Strathern,Mendeleev's Dream, 225–41.
Douglas McKie,Antoine Lavoisier (Philadelphia: J. J. Lippincott,1935),297–98.
J. E. Gilpin, “Lavoisier Statue in Paris,”American Chemical Journal25(1901): 435.
William D. Williams, “Gustavus Hinrichs and the LavoisierMonument,”Bulletin of the History of Chemistry 23 (1999): 47– 49; R. Oesper, “Once the Reputed Statue of Lavoisier,”Journal of ChemistryEducation 22 (1945):October frontispiece; Brock,Norton History ofChemistry, 123–24.
Joe Jackson,A World on Fire (New York: Viking, 2007), 335;“Lavoisier Statue in Paris,”Nature 153 (March 1944): 311.
Frank Greenaway,John Dalton and the Atom (Ithaca, N.Y.: CornellUniversity Press, 1966); Brock,Norton History of Chemistry, 128–60.
A. L. Duckworth et al., “Grit: Perseverance and Passion for Long-Term Goals,”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92 (2007): 1087–101;Lauren Eskreis-Winkler et al., “The Grit Effect: Predicting Retention inthe Military, the Workplace, School and Marriage,”Frontiers in Psychology5(February 2014): 1–12.
See Strathern,Mendeleev's Dream; Brock,Norton History ofChemistry,311–54.
Kenneth N. Gilpin, “Luther Simjian Is Dead; Held More Than 92Patents,”New York Times, November 2, 1997; “Machine Accepts BankDeposits,”New York Times, April 12, 1961, 57.
Dmitri Mendeleev, “Ueber die beziehungen der eigenschaften zu denatom gewichten der elemente,”Zeitschrift für Chemie 12 (1869): 405–6.
9. 生命世界
Anthony Serafini,The Epic History of Biology (Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus,1993), 126.
E. Bianconi et al., “An Estimation of the Number of Cells in theHumanBody,”Annals of Human Biology 40 (November–December 2013):
–71.
Lee Sweetlove, “Number of Species on Earth Tagged at 8.7Million,”Nature,August 23, 2011.
“The Food Defect Action Levels,” Defect Levels Handbook, U.S. Food andDrug Administration, accessed October 28, 2014,http://www.fda.gov/food/guidanceregulation/guidancedocumentsregulatoryinformation/ucm056174.htm.
Ibid.
“Microbiome: Your Body Houses 10x More Bacteria ThanCells,”Discover,n.d., accessed October 28, 2014,http://discovermagazine.com/galleries/zen-photo/m/microbiome.
For Aristotle's work on biology, see Joseph Singer,A History ofBiology toAbout the Year 1900 (New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1959); LoisMagner,AHistory of the Life Sciences, 3rd. ed. (New York: Marcel Dekker,2002).
Daniel Boorstin,The Discoverers (New York: Vintage, 1983), 327.
Magner,History of the Life Sciences, 144.
Ruth Moore,The Coil of Life (New York: Knopf, 1961), 77.
Tita Chico, “Gimcrack's Legacy: Sex, Wealth, and the TheaterofExperimental Philosophy,”Comparative Drama 42 (Spring 2008): 29–49.
For Leeuwenhoek's work on the microscope, see Moore,Coil of Life.
Boorstin,The Discoverers, 329–30.
Moore,Coil of Life, 79.
Boorstin,The Discoverers, 330–31.
Moore,Coil of Life, 81.
Adriana Stuijt, “World's First Microscope Auctioned Off for 312,000Pounds,”Digital Journal, April 8, 2009, accessed November 7, 2014,http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/270683; Gary J. Laughlin, “Editorial: Rare Leeuwenhoek Bids for History,”The Microscope 57 (2009): ii.
Moore,Coil of Life, 87.
“Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632– 1723),” University of CaliforniaMuseum of Paleontology, accessed October 28, 2014,http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/leeuwenhoek.html.
For Darwin's life, I relied largely on Ronald W. Clark,The Survivalof Charles Darwin: A Biography of a Man and an Idea (New York: RandomHouse, 1984); Adrian Desmond, James Moore, and JanetBrowne,Charles Darwin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007); and PeterJ. Bowler,Charles Darwin: The Man and His Influence (Cambridge, U.K.: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1990).
“Charles Darwin,” Westminster Abbey, accessed October 28, 2014,http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history /people/charles-darwin.
Clark,Survival of Charles Darwin, 115.
Ibid., 119.
Ibid., 15.
Ibid., 8.
Charles Darwin to W. D. Fox, October 1852, DarwinCorrespondence Project, letter 1489, accessed October 28, 2014, http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/entry-1489.
Clark,Survival of Charles Darwin, 10.
Ibid., 15.
Ibid., 27.
Bowler,Charles Darwin: The Man, 50, 53–55.
Charles Darwin to W. D. Fox, August 9–12, 1835, DarwinCorrespondence Project, letter 282, accessed October 28, 2014,http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/entry-282.
Desmond, Moore, and Browne,Charles Darwin, 25, 32–34.
Ibid., 42.
Bowler,Charles Darwin, 73.
Adrian J. Desmond,Darwin (New York: W. W. Norton, 1994), 375–85.
Charles Darwin's memorial of Anne Elizabeth Darwin, “The Deathof Anne Elizabeth Darwin,” accessed October 28, 2014,http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/death-of-anne-darwin.
Desmond, Moore, and Browne,Charles Darwin, 44.
Ibid., 47.
Ibid., 48.
Ibid., 49.
Anonymous [David Brewster], “Review ofVestiges of the NaturalHistory of Creation,”North British Review 3 (May–August 1845): 471.
Evelleen Richards, “‘Metaphorical Mystifications': The RomanticGestation of Nature in British Biology,” inRomanticism and the Sciences,eds. Andrew Cunningham and Nicholas Ardine (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 137.
“Darwin to Lyell, June 18, 1858,” inThe Life and Letters of CharlesDarwin,Including an Autobiographical Chapter, ed. Francis Darwin(London:John Murray, 1887), available at http://darwin-online.org.uk/converted/published/1887_Letters_F1452/1887_Letters_F1452.2.html, accessed October 28, 2014.
Desmond,Darwin, 470.
Desmond, Moore, and Browne,Charles Darwin, 65.
Bowler,Charles Darwin, 124–25.
Clark,Survival of Charles Darwin, 138–39.
Desmond, Moore, and Browne,Charles Darwin, 107.
See Magner,History of the Life Sciences, 376–95.
Darwin to Alfred Russel Wallace, July 1881, quoted inBowler,Charles Darwin, 207.
10. 人类体验的极限
In 2013, scientists were finally able to go a step further and “see” individual molecules reacting. See Dimas G. de Oteyza et al., “DirectImaging of Covalent Bond Structure in Single-Molecule ChemicalReactions,”Science340 (June 21, 2013): 1434–37.
N iels Blaedel,Harmony and Unity: The Life of Niels Bohr (NewYork:Springer Verlag, 1988), 37.
John Dewey, “What Is Thought?,” inHow We Think (Lexington,Mass.:Heath, 1910), 13.
Barbara Lovett Cline,The Men Who Made a New Physics(Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1965), 34. See also J. L. Heilbron,TheDilemmasof an Upright Man (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,1996), 10.
Much of the material on Planck comes from Heilbron,Dilemmas of anUprightMan. See also Cline,The Men Who Made a New Physics, 31–64.
Heilbron,Dilemmas of an Upright Man, 3.
Ibid., 10.
Ibid., 5.
Leonard Mlodinow and Todd A. Brun, “Relation Between thePsychologicaland Thermodynamic Arrows of Time,”Physical Review E 89(2014):052102–10.
Heilbron,Dilemmas of an Upright Man, 14.
Ibid., 12; Cline,The Men Who Made a New Physics, 36.
Richard S. Westfall,Never at Rest (Cambridge, U.K.: CambridgeUniversityPress, 1980), 462.
Ibid.
The original quote, often misquoted, is“Eine neue wissenschaftlicheWahrheit pflegt sich nicht in der Weise durchzusetzen, daß ihre Gegnerüberzeugt werden und sich als belehrt erklären, sondern vielmehrdadurch,daß ihre Gegner allmählich aussterben und daß dieheranwachsende Generation von vornherein mit der Wahrheit vertrautgemacht ist.” Itappeared inWissenschaftliche Selbstbiographie: Mit einemBildnis und der von Max von Laue gehaltenen Traueransprache (Leipzig: Johann AmbrosiusBarth Verlag, 1948), 22. The translation comes fromMaxPlanck, Scientific Autobiography and Other Papers, trans. F. Gaynor (NewYork: Philosophical Library, 1949), 33–34.
John D. McGervey,Introduction to Modern Physics (New York: Academic Press, 1971), 70.
Robert Frost, “The Black Cottage,” inNorth of Boston (New York: Henry Holt, 1914), 54.
Albert Einstein,Autobiographical Notes (1949; New York: OpenCourt,1999), 43.
Carl Sagan,Broca's Brain (New York: Random House, 1974), 25.
Abraham Pais,Subtle Is the Lord: The Science and Life of AlbertEinstein(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), 45.
Ibid., 17–18.
Ibid., 31.
Ibid., 30–31.
Ronald Clark,Einstein: The Life and Times (New York: WorldPublishing,1971), 52.
Pais,Subtle Is the Lord, 382–86.
Ibid., 386.
Ibid.
Jeremy Bernstein,Albert Einstein and the Frontiers of Physics(Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1996), 83.
11. 看不见的王国
Ld Mldi eonaronow,Feynmans' Rainbow: A Search for Beauty inPhysics andin Life (New York: Vintage, 2011), 94–95.
Abraham Pais,Subtle Is the Lord: The Science and Life of AlbertEinstein(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), 383.
For more on Bohr's life and science and his relationship withErnestRutherford, see Niels Blaedel,Harmony and Unity: The Life of NielsBohr(New York: Springer Verlag, 1988), and Barbara Lovett Cline,The MenWhoMade a New Physics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 1–30,88–126.
“Corpuscles to Electrons,” American Institute of Physics, accessedOctober28, 2014, http://www.aip.org /history/electron/jjelectr.htm.
R. Sherr, K. T. Bainbridge, and H. H. Anderson, “Transmutation ofMercuryby Fast Neutrons,”Physical Review 60 (1941): 473–79.
John L. Heilbron and Thomas A. Kuhn, “The Genesis of the BohrAtom,” inHistorical Studies in the Physical Sciences, vol. 1, ed. RussellMcCormmach(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1969), 226.
William H. Cropper,Great Physicists: The Life and Times ofLeadingPhysicists from Galileo to Hawking (Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress, 2001),317.
For more on Geiger, see Jeremy Bernstein,Nuclear Weapons: WhatYou Needto Know (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2008),19–20; andDiana Preston,Before the Fallout: From Marie Curie toHiroshima (NewYork: Bloomsbury, 2009), 157–58.
Actually, it would be a hundred billion tons, for Everest weighs abouta billiontons. See “Neutron Stars,”NASA Mission News, August 23, 2007,accessedOctober 27, 2014, http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/GLAST/science/neutronstarsrt.htm.p__10 John D. McGervey,Introduction to Modern Physics (New York: AcademicPress, 1971), 76.
Stanley Jaki,The Relevance of Physics (Chicago: University ofChicago Press, 1966), 95.
Blaedel,Harmony and Unity, 60.
Jaki,Relevance of Physics, 95.
Ibid.
Ibid., 96.
Blaedel,Harmony and Unity, 78–80; Jagdish Mehra and HelmutRechenberg,The Historical Development of Quantum Theory, vol. 1 (NewYork: SpringerVerlag, 1982), 196, 355.
Blaedel,Harmony and Unity, 79–80.
12. 量子革命
William H. Cropper,Great Physicists: The Life and Times of LeadingPhysicists from Galileo to Hawking (Oxford: Oxford University Press,2001),252.
Ibid.
The definitive biography of Heisenberg is David C. Cassidy,Uncertainty: TheLife and Times of Werner Heisenberg (New York: W. H. Freeman, 1992).
Ibid., 99–100.
Ibid., 100.
Olivier Darrigol,From c-Numbers to q-Numbers: The ClassicalAnalogy in theHistory of Quantum Theory (Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, 1992),218–24, 257, 259; Cassidy,Uncertainty, 184–90.
“Failure,” television commercial, 1997, accessed October 27, 2014,https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=45m MioJ5szc.
Lincoln-Douglas Debate at Charleston, Illinois, September 18, 1858,accessedNovember 7, 2014, http://www.nps.gov/liho/historyculture/debate4.htm.
Abraham Lincoln, address at Peoria, Illinois, October 16, 1854; seeRoy P.Basler, ed.,The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, vol. 2 (NewBrunswick,N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1953–55), 256, 266.
William A. Fedak and Jeffrey J. Prentis, “The 1925 Born and JordanPaper ‘OnQuantum Mechanics,'”American Journal of Physics 77 (February2009):128–39.
Niels Blaedel,Harmony and Unity: The Life of Niels Bohr (NewYork:Springer Verlag, 1988), 111.
Max Born,My Life and Views (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons,1968), 48.
Mara Beller,Quantum Dialogue: The Making of a Revolution(Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1999), 22.
Cassidy,Uncertainty, 198.
Abraham Pais,Subtle Is the Lord: The Science and Life of AlbertEinstein(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), 463.
Cassidy,Uncertainty, 203.
Charles P. Enz,No Time to Be Brief (Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress, 2010),134.
Blaedel,Harmony and Unity, 111–12.
Walter Moore,A Life of Erwin Schrödinger (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 138.
Ibid., 149.
Ibid.
Wallace Stevens, “Thirteen Ways of Looking at aBlackbird,”Collected Poems (1954; New York: Vintage, 1982), 92.
Pais,Subtle Is the Lord, 442.
Cassidy,Uncertainty, 215.
Ibid.
Moore,Life of Erwin Schrödinger, 145.
Albert Einstein to Max Born, December 4, 1926, inThe Born-EinsteinLetters ,ed. M. Born (New York: Walker, 1971), 90.
Pais,Subtle Is the Lord, 443.
Ibid., 31.
Ibid., 462.
Graham Farmelo,The Strangest Man: The Hidden Life of Paul Dirac,Mystic of the Atom (New York: Basic Books, 2009), 219–20.
Cassidy,Uncertainty, 393.
Ibid., 310.
Moore,Life of Erwin Schrödinger, 213–14.
Philipp Frank,Einstein: His Life and Times (Cambridge, Mass.: DaCapoPress, 2002), 226.
Michael Balter, “Einstein's Brain Was Unusual in Several Respects,Rarely Seen Photos Show,”Washington Post, November 26, 2012.
Farmelo,The Strangest Man, 219.
Cassidy,Uncertainty, 306.
Cassidy,Uncertainty, 421–29.
后记
Martin Gardner, “Mathematical Games,”Scientific American, June1961,168–70.
Alain de Botton,The Consolations of Philosophy (New York: Vintage,2000),20–23.
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